Synagogue El Transito (1355-57)

The city of Toledo had eleven synagogues during its golden age. Today only two of the synagogues remain. Last week’s SPY article touched upon the Ibn Shoshan Synagogue/Santa Maria le Blanca (1180). The Synagogue of Samuel ha-Levi/Synagogue El Transito, on the Calle Samuel Levi, dates from 1355-57. It was a private home and yeshiva (school). Samual ha-Levi held the positions of chamberlain, treasurer, judge, and councilor to the Christian King Pedro of Castile. The Jewish ha-Levi family had served the Christian Castilian House of Burgundy since 1200.  The family included one of the last Jewish poets in Spain who wrote in the Arab style during the 12th and 13th Centuries. 

As can be seen in the photograph, the size and height of the Synagogue exceeded the height restrictions applied to synagogues. It is taller than the two-story buildings across the street. King Pedro may have given permission to deviate from these restrictions in appreciation for ha-Levi’s work for him. The designer was master mason Don Meir Abdie, one of the King’s architects and builders. The synagogue was annexed to the ha-Levi palace.

Synagogue El Transito (interior)

The prayer hall was 76 feet long by 30 feet wide and 40 feet tall.  Along the upper wall are large frames of larch wood with floral patterns of inlaid carved polychrome and ivory. Only a section of the original mosaic floor is preserved. The women’s gallery with five openings can be seen at the right of the southern wall. 

The wooden ceiling is composed of joined beams, interlaced with supporting rafters. The decoration of the square in the center represents the stars of heaven. The vegetal designs in the floor mosaics represent earth. Together they represent the close connection of heaven and earth. The designs are a reference to the city of Jerusalem and Temple Mount, the highest point in the city, where King Solomon built the First Temple. Stucco decoration and inscriptions reference the Jewish people’s desire to return to Jerusalem.  

At the present time, the Temple Mount is the location of the Al Aqsa Mosque, and it is closed to Jews. The only section of the old temple Jews can access is the western retaining wall, known as the Wailing Wall.

Torah Niche

The Torah niche, on the eastern wall of the synagogue, has three multi-lobed arches. It is decorated with plants, family symbols, and interlacing designs. The inscriptions are carved in Kufic, the Arabic script, and include text praising the King and text from the Book of Psalms. Samuel ha-Levi was also praised: “The exalted pious prince of princes of the tribe of Levi…has exceeded in all deeds by building a house of prayer for the Lord God of Israel…and he commenced building this house in the year 1357.” 

Upper Wall (detail)

Elaborate carving continues around the upper wall. ha-Levi imported cedar beams from Lebanon for the construction. The cedars of Lebanon famously were used by King Solomon in his construction of the First Temple. The delicate leaf and flower interlacing is punctuated with family crests. The horseshoe arches are multi-lobed. The gold mosaic text is set against dark blue mosaics. The iron window grills, popular in Mudejar buildings, were a unique feature that added to the eloquence of their structures.

Window Grill (detail)

Castile and Leon Coat of Arms

The inclusion of King Pedro’s coat of arms illustrates his esteem for ha-Levi. He was trusted with the seal of the King. Text is placed under the coat of arms: “See the sanctuary now consecrated in Israel, And the house which was built by Samuel with a pulpit of wood for reading the law, With its scrolls and its crowns all for God.  And its lavers and lamps to illuminate, And its windows like the windows of Ariel.”

King Pedro was criticized by his rivals for his tolerance of the Jews. He finally turned against ha-Levi, accusing him of embezzlement. He was put into prison in 1360, and he died there from torture. 

When all Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, the synagogue was converted to a Catholic church, El Transito (Assumption of the Virgin), and it was given to the Order of Calatrave. Restoration of the synagogue began in 1879. It had been declared a National Monument in 1877. It was officially established as the Museo Sefardi in 1964. In 1968, its official name became the National Museum for Hispanic-Hebraic Art, and it remains so today. The museum section adjoining the synagogue includes a garden in which contemporary Jewish sculpture is displayed.

Monastery of San Juan de los Reyes (1477-1504)

Across the road from El Transito is the Monastery of San Juan de los Reyes (1477-1504), built by Isabella and Ferdinand and dedicated to the birth of their son Juan and their victory over Alfonso V of Portugal at the Battle of Toro (1476). However, it remains unclear who won the battle. The Queen ordered the placement on the walls rows of manacles and shackles that were worn by the Christian prisoners who were held by the Moors and Africans in Granada and later freed by the Reconquista.

Monastery of San Juan de los Reyes (detail of chains)

Monastery of San Jaun de los Reyes

The monastery church was built in the Catholic Gothic style (pointed arches). The walls were constructed of cream-colored limestone. Throughout there are sculptures of saints, animals, and plants. The most repeated sculpture is the coat of arms of Isabella and Ferdinand held by an eagle, the icon of St John. Napoleon’s troops occupied the monastery and set it on fire. The church and one cloister remained standing. Restoration began in 1883 and was completed in 1967

Monastery of San Jaun de los Reyes

The lower level of the cloister walk was decorated with images of saints, fantastic beasts, and temptations.  Isabelle and Ferdinand had the upper level constructed with a ceiling in the style of the Mudejar, which continued to be popular among the Catholics. The upper level included a ceiling of larch wood. Geometric carvings included coats of arms, lions, arrows, and other symbols of Spain. When the Muslims and Jews were driven from Spain, an exception was made for the Mudejar master craftsmen.

Upper Level of the Cloister (detail)

The Golden Age of Spain series will continue with Seville and the Alhambra in Granada.

Beverly Hall Smith was a professor of art history for 40 years. Since retiring to Chestertown with her husband Kurt in 2014, she has taught art history classes at WC-ALL and the Institute of Adult Learning, Centreville. An artist, she sometimes exhibits work at River Arts. She also paints sets for the Garfield Theater in Chestertown.

Impressionist artist Gustave Caillebotte (1848-1894) was from a wealthy Parisienne family. He grew up near the area of the St. Lazarre train station. He received a law degree in 1868 and a license to practice law in 1870. During the Franco-Prussian War, he served in the Garde Nationale Mobile de la Seine. As a result of a visit in 1871 with Leon Bonnat, who was a painter, art collector, and professor at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris, Caillebotte changed direction and began to study art. His talent was evident, and within a short time, he set up his own studio in his parent’s house. His father died in 1874 and his mother in 1878, leaving Gustave and his two brothers very wealthy. They moved into an apartment on the Boulevard Haussmann in Paris. 

“Young Man at the Window” (1876)

“Young Man at the Window” (1876) (32”x46”) depicts Caillebotte’s brother Rene, standing on the balcony of one of the new apartments on rue de Miromesnil and overlooking the Boulevard Haussmann. The apartment is luxurious, with a colonnaded balcony rail, large glass windows that are open, a carpet with deep red and blue flowers, and a handsome carved chair with rich red upholstery. These details indicate wealth. 

Caillebotte was fascinated with the new architecture of Paris, instituted during the period of 1853 until 1870 by Baron George-Eugene Hassmann. He was commissioned by Emperor Napoleon III to tear down the overcrowded, unhealthy slums and to build a more spacious and hygienic Paris. His reorganization resulted in wide boulevards that connected the various parts of Paris and new buildings with mansard roofs and dormer windows that allowed greater light into the rooms. The roof and windows in this work were a signature of Haussmann’s buildings. New squares, sewers, fountains, aqueducts, and parks were constructed. The view out the window includes the wider avenues and sidewalks and new buildings that stretch into the distance. This new Paris became one of Caillebotte’s favorite subjects.

“Le Pont de l’Europe” (1876)

In January 1877, Monet, Sisley, Degas, Manet, and Renoir met in Caillebotte’s apartment on rue de Miromesnil to plan a third exhibition of the Impressionist group. “Le Pont de l’Europe” (1876) (49”x71”) was one of Caillebotte’s paintings included in the exhibition, and it was one of the stars of the show. The large bridge off the plaza was one of Haussmann’s renovations. It connected six avenues named after a European capital, and it spanned the railroad yard of the Gare Saint-Lazare. The view is from the Avenue of Vienna. Construction of railways, bridges, and train stations, the result of the invention of the steam engine, was taking place across Europe.

Caillebotte made several preliminary sketches for the painting, adjusting the perspective and the placement of the people. He paid careful attention to the construction of the bridge trusses. Caillebotte, like Millais, was interested in the common people, and he included at the front of the painting a worker looking out from the bridge. A dog leads the viewer into the composition. A well-dressed man wearing a hat and a woman in black stroll along the bridge. This young woman is often considered a prostitute, because women in public, especially at train stations, was against the social norm of the time. The man is thought to be Caillebotte and his companion Anne-Maris Hagen.  Caillebotte remained single. 

Also in the exhibition was Monet’s “Le Pont de l’Europe, Gare Saint-Lazare,” an alternate view of the bridge. Monet and Caillebotte were great friends. Caillebotte purchased a Monet painting in 1874, and left 16 Monet works to the State in his will. He was not only a painter in the group, but also a patron.  His wealth made it possible to support the other members by purchasing their work and providing any necessary funds to support group efforts. 

“Skiffs” (1877)

Caillebotte came to Monet’s attention through his paintings of rowers, swimmers, and fishermen, created at his family estate at Yerres, a small town southeast of Paris. Both men were boaters, and Caillebotte also designed boats. They also discovered they were avid gardeners.  Cailebotte’s “Skiffs” (1877) (35”x46”) is in the collection of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. It is one of several of his paintings of boats from 1877 until 1878. He was interested in everything that was going on in the art world, and his Impressionist instinct about color is evident. He uses fresh blues, greens, and yellows, and he painted with broad brush strokes to depict moving water. In “Skiffs” it is a sunny day, and the shadows across the rowers’ white tee-shirts are blue, not gray. The yellow coloring of the oars, hats, and sunlight on the water help to emphasize the rapid movements of the rowers. 

He continues to display his interest in perspective that was influenced by his keen interest in photography and Japanese prints. His tendency to crop and zoom-in is demonstrated in the work.  He places the view slightly above the rowers so the perspective hides their faces. Skiffs are flat bottomed boats that easily tip over if not handled correctly.  The energy Caillebotte creates in this painting helps the viewer to experience the challenge faced by the rowers.

“The Uphill Path, Chemin Montant” (1881)

In May of 1881, the Caillebotte brothers bought land on the Seine at Gennevilliers and built a holiday home they named Petit Gennevilliers. It was a popular sea-side resort in Argenteuil and Trouville. Caillebotte picked and chose from realism and Impressionist styles. “The Uphill Path, Chemin Montant” (1881) (39”x49’’) demonstrates that he had fully embraced Impressionist color and brushwork. The couple enjoy a leisurely stroll along a garden path on a sunny day. The sky is a bright blue. A dark orange parasol and a straw hat protect the couple who are at present on a shady part of the path, but will walk into the sunlight. Broad brush strokes of green, dark blue, yellow, and light green paint create a rich grassy lawn, with shadows crossing it from the trees on the right. The doorway to the Italian style villa is at the left. The color of the woman’s parasol, the villa’s shutters and brick walls, and a section of wall farther along the path draw the viewer’s attention deeper into the garden. Caillebotte’s unique sense of perspective is highlighted by the diagonal line of the house’s cement fence and the molding along its second story. The garden ends in a bright yellow sunlit patch of grass and a green hedge. This work was sold for $6.73 million at Christie’s in New York in 2003, and in 2019 for $22.1 million at Christie’s in London.

“Chrysanthemums in the Garden at Petit-Gennevilliers” (1893)

Caillebotte stopped showing his work in 1884, and he dedicated his time to gardening. “Chrysanthemums in the Garden at Petit-Gennevilliers” (1893) (39”x24’’) (Metropolitan Museum, New York City) is one of the many paintings he made of his garden and of flowers. Like other artists, he made still-life paintings, many of cuts of meat and fish, and some of flowers. Chrysanthemums were popular in Europe and France because of their variety of colors, as can be seen in this painting. The flowers also were popular because of their association with Japan. Chrysanthemums were symbols of longevity and the Japanese imperial family. This close-up composition is the result of his idea of decorating the panels of dining room doors with images of plants, an idea shared with his close friend Monet. His paintings included long paths of dahlias and sunflowers. He also grew orchids. 

Caillebotte in his greenhouse at Petit Gennevilliers (1892) (photograph)

Caillebotte maintained over the years close connections with several of the Impressionists. Renoir often came to stay at Petit-Genneviliers, and he served as the executor of Caillebotte’s will. Many of Caillebotte’s 500 paintings are in private collections. When he died in 1894 at the early age of 45, he left 68 paintings to the French government. They were not his own, but works he had purchased over the years to support Monet (14), Cezanne (5), Degas (7), Renoir (10), Sisley (9), Manet (4), Pissarro (19), and Millet and others. The Impressionists still were not welcomed in French museums.  Caillebotte stipulated the paintings were to be shown in the Luxembourg Palace, where the works of living artists were displayed. As executor, Renoir ultimately negotiated that 38 of the works would be shown at the Palace. The near-sighted French government had rejected the offer for the donation of the rest of the collection again in 1904 and 1908. The government finally accepted the donation in 1928, but it was too late. Other claimants had emerged and the paintings were sold.

Caillebotte’s works were not popular, because he did not need to exhibit his work. His reputation was based upon his support of the arts. His popularity and international fame as an artist are the result of the 2024 exhibition of his works at the Musee d’Orsay in Paris and the exhibition in 2025 at the Art Institute of Chicago.

 If he had lived instead of dying prematurely, he would have enjoyed the same upturn in fortunes as we did, for he was full of talent. He was as gifted as he was conscientious, and when we lost him, he was still at the beginning of his career. (Claude Monet)

Beverly Hall Smith was a professor of art history for 40 years. Since retiring to Chestertown with her husband Kurt in 2014, she has taught art history classes at WC-ALL and the Institute of Adult Learning, Centreville. An artist, she sometimes exhibits work at River Arts. She also paints sets for the Garfield Theater in Chestertown.

Jacques-Joseph Tissot (1836-1902) was a successful painter and printmaker in the 19th Century. Born in Nantes, a port city in France, he would continue throughout his life to be interested in painting images with ships. His parents Marcel Tissot, a successful drapery merchant, and milliner Marie Durand influenced his interest in fashion and art. He decided by age 17 to become an artist, and by age 20 he was in Paris studying at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. He learned to paint in the classical style. Hippolyte Flandrin, a well-respected Academic painter, was his major instructor. Tissot met life-long friends in Paris, among them Whistler, Manet, Oscar Wilde, and Degas, who became his mentor. He had success at the Paris Salon in 1859 with his paintings based on the popular story of Faust. Gounod’s opera Faust and Carre’s play Faust and Marguerite influenced the works. Tissot’s earlier works featuring medieval stories were considered by critics to be of the old style. Critic Paul de Saint-Victor wrote, “It is sad to see an intelligent and gifted artist betraying his talent with pedantic imitations.”

“Two Sisters” (1863)

“Two Sisters” (1863) (83’’x54’’) is characteristic of Tissot’s meticulous attention to detail. The two sisters stand on a grassy lawn beneath the trees.  The older sister’s white gown has a sheer layer of fabric decorated with laces draped over the well-fitted gown. Her red hair ribbon, red flowers tucked into her black ribbon belt, and black hat with red feathers are well matched. The younger sister’s white pinafore, appropriate for her age, has just the right amount of ruffles and lace.  The younger sister carries a round fancy basket that repeats the shape and colors of the hat. Fashion seems to be the subject of the painting. The sisters appear to be posing, revealing little of themselves. 

“Mlle L.L. in Red” (1864)

Tissot showed “Two Sisters” and “Mlle L.L. in Red” (1864) (49”x39”) for the first time at the Paris Salon of 1864 to illustrate his competency in depicting contemporary images. “Mlle L.L. in Red” is a mystery. The subject remains unidentified. Her red jacket was worn by the Zouaves, a French corps of soldiers formed in Algeria, who continued to wear their North African style uniform. The rows of bright red pom poms caught attention. Her lap and legs are merely suggested under the voluminous black skirt. Complementing her red jacket are the dark green color of the carpet and the red and green colors played out in the wall paper and the fabric covering of the chair. The subject appears to be a reader; she has books and loose papers in her room. The mirror behind her reflects an open door, and a card or photograph is tucked into the frame of the mirror. Charming and mysterious, she engages the viewer in a nonchalant manner. 

However, in 1864, another critic commented that Tissot created “genuine paintings…whose greatest merit consists in the sincerity of their modern feeling.” In Le Grande Journal, Jules Castagnay wrote, “Mr. Tissot, the crazy primitive of the most recent Salons, has suddenly changed his manner and moved closer to Mr. Courbet, a good mark for Mr. Tissot.” 

“Portrait of the Marquise de Maramon” (1866)

“Portrait of the Marquise de Maramon” (1866) (50”x38’’) is one of many portrait commissions received by Tissot. This portrait of the wealthy Marquise is more intimate than the group portrait of the family (1865). The setting is in their Chateau du Paulhac in Auvergne, France. Dressed in a deep pink peignoir, with rows of ruffles, the Marquise stands on a dark fur rug and leans on the fireplace mantle. She turns her head as if to recognize someone in the room.  A black scarf with a small silver cross is tied around her neck. The cross is a small item, certainly placed there by her choice for a personal reason. 

The room is lush. Red velvet drapery hangs from the fireplace and the window. It is evening. The candles on the mantle do not cast much light. The color of the bowl of flowers on the mantle, the same color as her gown, is designed to repeat the color of the gown. The portrait bust calls attention to the family’s nobility.  A ceramic Japanese dragon rising from waves sits on a white glove, the mate to the glove that the Marquise is wearing, another touch that adds a mystery.  The Louis XVI stool with needlework placed on top indicates she is a lady of leisure. Tissot borrowed this painting from the Marquis to show it at the 1867 Universal Exhibition in Paris.

Tissot, like many Parisians, was fascinated with Japanese art and artifacts, and he was among the great collectors of them. He included a Japanese folding screen and a Japanese ceramic in the painting. English Pre-Raphaelite artist Dante Gabriel Rossetti, visiting Paris in November 1864, wrote to his mother that he had purchased four Japanese books and on visiting Madame Desoye’s shop on the Rue de Rivoli “found all the costumes there were being snapped up by a French artist, Tissot, who it seems is doing three Japanese pictures, which the mistress of the shop described to me as the three wonders of the world, evidently in her opinion quite throwing Whistler into the shade.” In 1869, French art critic and novelist Champfleury wrote about Tissot’s passion: “The latest original event of note is the opening of a Japanese studio by a young painter with sufficient means to afford a small townhouse on the Champs-Élysées.” Tissot also was the drawing master for Prince Tokugawa Akitake, the brother of the last Shogun and leader of the Japanese delegation to Paris in 1867-68.

Tissot served on the French side in the Franco-Prussian War and later with the Paris Commune during the resistance. After the war in 1871, he traveled to London, where he remained for the next eleven years. He learned etching and drew cartoons and caricatures. He was employed by Thomas Bowles, the editor of Vanity Fair magazine. His work was shown at the Royal Academy in London under his pseudonym Coide. Tissot purchased a house in St John’s Wood, popular with British artists. The writer and art critic Edmond de Goncourt described it as “a studio with a waiting room where, at all times, there is iced champagne at the disposal of visitors.”

“The Ball on Shipboard” (1874)

Tissot believed London would be a source of patrons with money. He became a member of the Art Club in 1873. The member artists were popular with the wealthy industrialists of the day. The Industrial Revolution was changing the economy from hand-made to machine-made. From 1760 to 1830, iron and steel production, trains and ships powered by steam, use of electricity, use of machines in the production of goods, and advances in communication changed Britain and Europe. Tissot’s love of the sea, which he shared with Whistler, his interest in fashion, and his talent for storytelling communicated through his paintings appealed to numerous patrons. 

“The Ball on Shipboard” (1874) (51”x33”) combines several of his interests. A variety of national flags are sewn together as an awning. People are enjoying a sunny day. Many of them are beautiful young women dressed fashionably. Some walk about the deck, some sit in mixed company groups, and others go below deck. It is interesting to note that most of the men are older. 

Tissot continued to paint images of society, and the sale of his paintings added to his wealth. However, critiques were mixed. John Ruskin described Tissot’s paintings as “mere painted photographs of vulgar society.” The writer of an article in The Athenaeum said there were “no pretty women, but a set of showy rather than elegant costumes, some few graceful, but more ungraceful attitudes, and not a lady in a score of female figures.”  Another critic found the piece “garish and almost repellent.” Despite the British Victorian prudishness, prominent art dealer William Agnew, purchased “The Ball on Shipboard” and easily sold it for a nice profit.

Degas invited Tissot to show his work in the first Impressionist exhibition in 1874. Tissot refused, but remained friends with Degas and Manet and others of the Impressionist group 

“The Gallery of the HMS Calcutta, Portsmouth” (1876)

Victorian society was gender-segregated, which resulted in social and sexual tensions. Tissot represented this tension in “The Gallery of the HMS Calcutta, Portsmouth” (1876) Both women are dressed in white, a popular color choice at the time, and their dresses are decorated with bows and ribbons. The hourglass figure is achieved with a tight bodice over a corset. The woman with yellow bows holds a large fan in front of her face, not looking at the junior naval officer and the woman next to him. Fans were used for secret messages. An open fan at the left ear meant “do not betray our secret.” 

Curves are plentiful in Tissot’s composition, from the curves of the ladies to the curves of the wicker chairs on deck. Even the shape of ship’s gallery, a type of balcony at the back of a ship that houses the officers’ quarters, is curved. Questions about motives and relationships abound.

American-British writer Henry James, whose novels often told the story of marital situations between English and Europeans, described the painting as “hard, vulgar and banal.” Another critic suggested Tissot chose to name the ship Calcutta because it was a play on words from the French “Quel cul tu as” (What an arse you have). The painting was exhibited in 1877 and was sold to Johon Robertson Reid, a Scots painter who became president of the Society of British Artists in 1886.

There may be another reason the ship was named Calcutta. It was a second-rate British ship of the line with 84 guns. Built in Bombay in 1831, it was recommissioned to serve in the Crimean War in the Baltic. It also served from 1856 until 1858 in the second opium war in the Far East. In 1858, Calcutta was the first ship of the line to visit Japan.

Tissot met the Irish beauty Kathleen Newton in 1875, and the couple formed a strong relationship until her death from tuberculosis in 1880. Since she was a divorced Irish Catholic, they could not marry. However, they lived together openly and had a son, Cecil George Newton (b.1878). Kathleen was Tissot’s lover, companion, and muse. She was frequently a female figure in his paintings. After her death, Tissot sold the London house and moved back to Paris. He became interested in spiritualism, popular at the time, and even held a séance.  

“Artists and their Wives” (1885)

“Artists and their Wives” (1885) (58’’x40’’) is a depiction of well-known painters and sculptors attending the celebratory lunch on Varnishing Day at the restaurant Le Doyen in Paris. Varnishing day was the day before the opening of the Paris Salon when artists put the final coat of varnish onto their paintings. The artists and their friends could then view the exhibition privately before it was opened to the public the next day. The painting was exhibited at two solo exhibitions, in Paris in 1885 and in London in 1886.

After the death of Kathleen, Tissot painted a series of 15 paintings titled “The Women of Paris” (1885).  A Roman Catholic, he also turned his attention to religion. He began a series of paintings that he believed told the truth of the Bible stories of the life of Christ. He traveled to the Holy Land several times between 1886 and 1896. He produced 365 watercolor images, of which 270 were published in a book that became a bestseller. After finishing the project, he began a series of pictures based on Old Testament stories.  He died before he could finish the project. 

After 11 years in London, Tissot never surrendered his French citizenship. One of his biographers described him “the most English of all French painters.”

The writer of an article in the journal L’Artiste (1869) concluded, “While our industrial and artistic creations may perish, and our customs and our costumes may fall into oblivion, a painting by Mr. Tissot will be enough for archaeologists of the future to reconstruct our era.”

Beverly Hall Smith was a professor of art history for 40 years. Since retiring to Chestertown with her husband Kurt in 2014, she has taught art history classes at WC-ALL and the Institute of Adult Learning, Centreville. An artist, she sometimes exhibits work at River Arts. She also paints sets for the Garfield Theater in Chestertown.

Italian artist Giuseppe De Nettis (1846-1884) was born into a wealthy family in Barletta, Italy. He trained for a short time in the Italian classical style of painting. At the age of 21, he moved to Paris, the heart of the art world at the time. He was engaged by Adolphe Goupil, founder of Goupil & Cie (1850), the leading art dealer and publisher in Paris in the 19th Century, to create saleable genre paintings. His works were exhibited in the Salons, and he received a Gold Medal and was made a member of the Legion of Honor. He became a success and his work was in demand.

“Japanese Ladies Admiring a Screen” (1870)

“Japanese Ladies Admiring a Screen” (1870) (watercolor and pencil) (14’’x11’’) responded to the interest in Japanese ukiyo-e prints that were introduced to France in the 1860s. The prints were among De Nettis’s early purchases of art.  The patterns of Japanese silk kimono fabrics and the lanterns and screens fascinated French patrons and artists alike. Van Gogh amassed one of the largest collections of ukiyo-e prints. The classical style of painting that De Nettis learned is obvious in his use of traditional techniques of color and light. The composition is pleasing, and a prospective buyer would have enjoyed the lavish kimonos and the patterns on the lanterns and folding screens. The small scale would have appealed to buyers with moderate funds and normal size houses. 

In 1869, De Nettis married Leontine Lucille Gruvelle (1842-1913), an accomplished and beautiful woman, who often served as his model. De Nettis fled Paris for London in 1870 to avoid the Franco-Prussian War and the siege of Paris from September 1870 until January 1871. Monet, Pissarro, and Sisley were among the artists who went to London, and Degas visited his family in New Orleans. On his return to Paris, De Nettis stopped in Italy and was the first artist to depict the eruption of the Mt Vesuvius volcano.

”La Grenouillere”

When De Nettis returned to Paris in 1872, he began painting cityscapes and the people of Paris. La Grenouillere was a floating restaurant on the Seine at Croissy-sur-Seine. It was a popular gathering place for Monet, Renoir, and other Impressionists. “La Grenouillere” (1873-74) (14”x11”) is a depiction of four fashionably dressed women, walking down a stone stairway to engage a boatman to row them across to the restaurant. The day is sunny and the flowers are popping out on the hill. The women perhaps anticipate a pleasant boat ride. 

Having met several of the Impressionists, De Nettis began exploring some of their techniques:  painting outdoors, exploring suggestive brushstrokes, and using the colors of sunlight to create shadows. For example, the shadows on the white dress of the woman engaged with the boatman are painted blue, not gray. 

Degas invited De Nettis to show his work in the first Impressionist Exhibition in 1874. His five paintings, not well liked by some of the Impressionists, were hung in a dark spot. He did not show with them again. His work continued to combine elements of both Realism and Impressionism.  De Nettis’s Paris home became a popular salon for artists, poets, writers, musicians and others, including Oscar Wilde, Alexander Dumas, and Emile Zola. De Nettis often cooked “lasagne alla Barlettana,” an Italian dish that received cheers from the guests, “Viva De Nettis.” 

“Le Place du Pyramids” (1875)

De Nettis also chose to paint images of the reconstruction of famous landmarks that were damaged during the Franco-Prussian War. “Le Place du Pyramids” (1875) (36”x30”) is a depiction of an iconic Parisian location. It was named in honor of Napoleon’s victory in Egypt in 1789. The statue of Joan of Arc is prominent at the center. Advertisements cover the scaffolding around the building. Parisiens going about their daily business walk through the busy square, passing by market carts, carriages, and a horse drawn bus. The sky is gray and the pavement wet. Le Place du Pyramids is in the middle of Rue de Rivoli, near the eastern end of the Tuileries Gardens.

“Arc de Triomphe” (1875)

“Arc de Triomphe” (1875) (21”x16’’) is a depiction of another well-known Paris landmark, under scaffolding for repair of damage during the Franco-Prussian War. The painting represents the resilience of the Parisiennes. It is autumn, and the tree leaves have turned orange. A wealthy couple on horseback enjoy a ride along the Champs-Elysees. They have passed under the Arc de Triomphe. De Nettis was adept at painting horses, and like Degas, he often painted the races at Longchamp. People are about to cross the road, among them a red-haired woman in a bright plaid coat, a well-dressed woman in black, and a young girl wearing red socks. The trio is probably an upper-class mother, her daughter, and a maid or nanny. 

The figures are painted realistically. The avenue is created with casual brushstrokes of a variety of beiges and browns, but also blues. Across the Champs-Elysees, the horse drawn carriage, people, trees, and distant buildings are more Impressionistic. De Nettis’s use of black paint throughout the painting distinguishes him from the Impressionists. 

“La parfumerie Violet, on the Boulevard des Capucines” (1880)

“La parfumerie Violet, on the Boulevard des Capucines” (1880) is a depiction of what was one of the most elegant boulevards in Paris. The Maison Violet was opened in 1827 by Francois-Etienne Violet. Famous for its fragrances, its perfumes received a great many awards and patents for their scents. The studio of the famous French photographer Felix Nadar (1820-1910) was located at 35 Boulevard des Capucines. The rich and famous came there to have their photographs taken. The studio also was the location of the first Impressionist exhibition in 1874.

“Breakfast in the Garden” (1884)

“Breakfast in the Garden” (1884) (34”x46’’) is one of De Nettis’s last works. His beloved wife Leontine and their son Jacques sit at a table in the shade of overhanging trees, and they enjoy breakfast in the sunny garden.  The table is set with coffee cups, silverware, a China cream and sugar set, a vase of spring flowers, and a white tablecloth with napkins. In front of the table is an empty wicker chair where De Nettis had sat. Leontine and Jacques concentrate on a curious duck that has come close. Other ducks are on the lawn and under the shade of nearby trees. De Nettis painted a happy time with his family. His skill at painting in the Impressionist style, when he wanted to, is fully visible. 

During his short career, De Nettis painted in Paris, on yearly trips to London, and while visiting Italy. He was named Knight of the Order of the Crown of Italy in 1875.

De Nettis died in 1884 at the young age of 38 from a stroke. He was honored in 1886 with a memorial exhibition at The Galerie Bernheim Jeune in Paris. Other exhibitions followed. In1984, he was honored with a 300 lire postage stamp. Since De Nettis chose to go his own way at a time when the popularity of Impressionism was on the rise, his works became eclipsed for a time. Today, his work is considered among the best of his time.

Beverly Hall Smith was a professor of art history for 40 years. Since retiring to Chestertown with her husband Kurt in 2014, she has taught art history classes at WC-ALL and the Institute of Adult Learning, Centreville. An artist, she sometimes exhibits work at River Arts. She also paints sets for the Garfield Theater in Chestertown.

Miriam Schapiro was born in 1923 in Toronto, Canada, to Russian Jewish parents, but she was brought up in Brooklyn, New York. One of her grandfathers was a rabbi and the inventor of the first moveable eyeball for dolls. His invention was used in the manufacture of “Teddy Bears” in the United States. Her father was an artist and industrial designer; her mother was a homemaker. Both parents encouraged Miriam to make art, and by age six she was well on her way.  She earned a BA at the State University of Iowa in 1945, an MA in 1946, and an MFA in printmaking in 1949. 

During her college years, Shapiro met and married Paul Brach (1924-2007), also a Jew and an artist.  During his service in the armed forces, Brach witnessed the horrors of the Theresienstadt ghetto and concentration camp in Czechoslovakia after it was liberated by the Russians in 1945. Schapiro’s Russian Jewish heritage certainly had an impact on her art.  Brach received a position as a painting instructor at the University of Missouri. Miriam did not.

Schapiro and Brach moved in 1951 to New York City where they met the Abstract Expressionists, rising stars of the art world. She was not included in the group since women were not considered serious artists.  She worked at the Parsons School of Design to earn money to pay for her son’s daycare in order to find time to paint. Her new paintings were large, like those of the men, and abstract with broad gestural brush strokes. The paintings were based on black and white photographs of the paintings of the Old Masters. Andre Emmerich selected one of her paintings for the inaugural exhibition at his new gallery in 1957.

Schapiro’s career began when she and Brach moved to California. She and Judy Chicago were employed in 1971 by the California Institute of Art in Valencia to establish the first Feminist Art Program. Woman House was an entire house given to the women. Each room was designed to reflect what women felt they needed to be and to do there. An entire book records the rooms and events that happened there. The results were outstanding. Schapiro’s work was developing in a new direction. She wrote in 1974, “I began to see myself as another kind of artist, as a woman artist, very much connected to those women who had made quilts, who had made samplers, who had done all of that women’s work throughout civilization, who are not honored, but whom I honor, and I honor them by continuing their tradition. The difference is that I don’t work with sewing; I’m a painter and I work on canvas, and I work in their tradition.”

“The Beauty of Summer” (1973-74)

Shapiro began to study the role of women in art over time. She created mixed media art with paint and fabric, quilting, embroidery, applique, lace, ribbons, photographs, even the color pink. The works would have in her words a “woman-like context” that “celebrates a private and public event.” “The Beauty of Summer” (1973-74) is an early collage that celebrates Summer. Flowers abound, and the garden is full, overflowing with joy. It is feminist and unique, and it is engaging.

She was a major force in the Women’s Movement along with Betty Friedan, Bella Abzug, Gloria Steinem, and others. The National Organization of Women (NOW) was created, and the College Art Associations authorized the Women’s Caucus for Art (WCA), both in 1972.

She challenged the existing male dominated concept of high art and low art by creating what she called Pattern and Decorative Arts. She called the works femmage, inspired by the “art out of women’s lives” and intended to validate “the traditional activities of women.” 

“Anonymous was a Woman” (1976)

Schapiro began with collages that paid tribute to such women as Impressionists Mary Cassatt and Berthe Morisot. She began her first Collaborative Series, working with nine women who were studio art graduates of the University of Oregon.  The group was a reflection of the traditional collaboration among women to make quilts and lace.  Each “Anonymous was a Woman” (1976) (30”x22”) (series of nine) was begun with an etched print of a hand-made doily. 

She was invited to lecture in several states, and she collected samples of items from women who attended. She and fellow artist Melissa Meyer wrote and published “Waste Not Want Not: An Inquiry into What Women Saved and Assembled” (1977-78) that listed assemblage, decoupage, photomontage, “traditional women’s techniques–sewing, piercing, hooking, cutting, appliqueing, cooking and the like….”

“Barcelona Fan” (1979)

“Barcelona Fan” (1979) (72’’x12’) was inspired by the traditional hand-held   fan. Schapiro said the fan “reveal[s] the unfolding of woman’s consciousness,” serving as “an appropriate symbol for all my feelings and experiences about the women’s movement. That’s a very ambitious notion: to choose something considered trivial in the culture and make it into a heroic form.” At 12 feet across, the piece embraced the practice of men making large works.  

Fans have found their uses over time in many cultures. Women in the 19th Century used their fans to engage in discreet communication. The fan is an important element in flamenco dancing. Dancing was one of Schapiro’s passions. Areas of paint, fabric, and lace create a colorful and bold pattern divided into 24 radial sections, the whole divided into five semicircles.  

“Barcelona Fan” (detail)

This detail of the outer semicircle provides a closer view of one of Schapiro’s iconic images.

Schapiro in her studio, ”Black Bolero Fan” (1980) behind her, and ”Azerbaijani Fan” in front

‘Golden Robe” (1979)

The fabrics and layered construction of Japanese kimonos fascinated Schapiro. “Lady Genji’s Maze” (1972) (not shown) was followed by “Anatomy of a Kimono” (1976) (52 feet long) (not shown) was followed by the Robes Series. “Golden Robe” (1979) is an example of the larger than life-sized collage of rich fabrics and distinct parts of a Japanese kimono. Schapiro’s kimono, fan, house, and heart-shaped canvases are among her iconic images. 

“Four Matriarchs” (1983)

“Four Matriarchs” (1983) (80’’x30’’each) (acrylic) were designed for the Temple Shalom Community in Chicago. They represent the four Jewish heroines Sarah, Rebecca, Rachel, and Leah. The paintings were then made into stained glass windows for the Temple. Schapiro’s renewed interest in her Jewish roots also resulted in several works depicting Anne Frank and in particular Frida Kahlo, who referred to herself as Jewish, and with whom Schapiro identified as an artist.  Each of Schapiro’s painted Matriarchs wears a brightly colored patterned garment and a unique hair style. They are linked together by semi-circle arm patterns. This design was commissioned to be made into stained glass. 

Viewed in place, the Temple Shalom designs are brilliant. Schapiro’s strong interest in the patterns and colors of ancient Russian clothing come into play here. She has added to her depictions of women artists the Russian Avant Gard artists Popova, Goncharova, and Rozanova, and the French artist Sonia Delaunay. These women brought art into the modern age in the early 20th Century, alongside their male counterparts.

“I’m Dancin’ as Fast as I Can’’ (1984)

“I’m Dancin’ as Fast as I Can’’ (1984) is one of Schapiro’s autobiographical pieces. She worked hard to balance her various roles as a woman, mother, artist, historian of women in the arts, breadwinner, and challenger of male authority. When she was young, she took dance lessons, and her designs and patterns do have a sense of rhythm. She is the whirling dancer at the center of the composition, and the ballet dancer at the right side of the painting. Yet, a striding male figure leads the viewer out of the composition, leaving the women behind. He holds a cane and tips his hat. Miniature portraits of Goya and Van Gogh are included along with signatures of Rembrandt and Picasso on the blue back of his coat.  The red, black, and yellow umbilical cord that links the ballet dancer to the whirling female is a personal statement 

Schapiro danced as fast and as hard as she could, and among the many exhibitions and honors she received in her lifetime were four honorary doctorates and a Lifetime Achievement Award (2002) from the Women’s Caucus for Art.

“I talk about women’s traditional art, the art of women who decorated pots or did the weaving—the great Navajo weaving—the eye-dazzlers of the southwest. Most of the decorative art has been done by women throughout time and civilization. What happened long ago in art criticism was that a distinction was made between high art or fine art and low art or craft/decorative art. And all that craft/decorative/low art which needs a superb sense of color and design has been done primarily by women. So the patriarchal fix in criticism has always made that sexist distinction. What women did in the seventies was to reinvent pattern and decoration as an integral part of high art.” (Miriam Shapiro)

Beverly Hall Smith was a professor of art history for 40 years. Since retiring to Chestertown with her husband Kurt in 2014, she has taught art history classes at WC-ALL and the Institute of Adult Learning, Centreville. An artist, she sometimes exhibits work at River Arts. She also paints sets for the Garfield Theater in Chestertown.

Born in Shanghai, China, in 1977, Xu Zhen is an internationally known artist whose work is well-known in the East. He is an installation artist, photographer, painter, and performer. His work critiques the social and political conventions of both the East and the West. Xu’s works exhibit a sense of humor, sometimes black, and always inspire viewers to think about their meaning and application to current issues.

Xu received his art education at the Shanghai Arts and Crafts Institute. He was the youngest Chinese artist to show work at the prestigious Venice Biennale in 2001. His video, created in 1998, was titled “Rainbow.” In the video, a hand repeatedly slapped a man’s back until it became red.  At the Venice Biennale of 2005, he presented the video “Shouting,” also made in 1998. He explained, “This work was made at a time when people were not so individualistic. What fascinated me as an artist then was the relationship between the individual and society. The act of shouting in a crowd of strangers is a way of showing my own existence. I wanted to create a moment that said, ‘I’m here!’”

“ShangArt Supermarket” (2007)

Xu created “ShangArt Supermarket” (2007) for Art Basel in Miami. The installation was an entire supermarket with products familiar to both Chinese and American consumers. All the packages, created in detail including prices, were empty. Viewers were fascinated and were eager to purchase the empty containers. He set up the supermarket in China with the same results: his empty boxes were eagerly purchased and are now displayed in various locations.

In 2000, Xu founded the non-profit art center Bizart. His team created exhibitions and events to bring more art to the public. In 2009, he established MadeIn, an art creation company. The company’s name was a play on the common commercial label “Made in China.” MadeIn introduced in 2013 the brand name Xu Zhen, making him a product of the company. The following year the MadeIn Gallery was opened to introduce and promote international contemporary artists and younger talent.

“Poseidon” (2014)

In 2014, Xu began the series Eternity. “Poseidon” (2014) (79’’x87’’x16’’), exhibited here on the beach at De Haan, Belgium, duplicates the classical bronze statue of Poseidon by Praxiteles (460 BCE) discovered at the bottom of the sea off Cape Artemision in Greece. The original bronze statue is 81” tall.  When exhibited outdoors, the statue’s outstretched arms became resting places for pigeons. The birds are not pigeons; they are painted Peking ducks. Peking Duck is a popular dish in America and China. Special preparation includes inflating the duck skin for roasting, the result a crispy skin and tender meat. 

“European Thousand Arms Classical Sculpture” (2015)

“European Thousand Arms Classical Sculpture” (2015) (10’x48’x15’) also is part of the Eternity series. It is composed of reproductions of famous Greek sculptures lined up behind the Goddess Athena. She wears a Greek warrior helmet since she is the Goddess of War.  Her necklace is made of the snakes cut from Medusa’s head, and beside her is a large snake, mouth open, ready to strike. Behind her, lines of statues of Apollo, Zeus, Poseidon, Hercules, and other Greek heroes, many with their arms extended.

This work was influenced by the most popular Chinese Mahayana Buddhist figure of the Thousand-Hand Guanyin. She is a bodhisattva, one who delays entering Nirvana to remain on Earth in order to help others. Her thousand hands have eyes in their palms, representing her ability to see suffering and identify each person’s need. She is the bodhisattva of Compassion. The thousand arms of the classical figures are positioned in the manner of images of the Thousand-Hand Guanyin. East meets West, but the European lack of understanding of Chinese Buddhism, may lead to misunderstanding. For example, much of the male Greek sculpture may be interpreted as a massive fighting army to do great harm, not to fight evil and misery as Guanyin does. Xu hopes to promote understanding.  

“Heavenly Guardian, Sleeping Muse” (2016)

In “Heavenly Guardian, Sleeping Muse” (2016) (93’’x40’’x24’’), another image from the Eternity series, Xu combines a Chinese Tang Tomb Guardian figure from the 8th Century with the 20th Century sculpture “Sleeping Muse” (1910) by Brancusi. Tomb Guardians were powerful and ferocious looking. They were intended to frighten and defeat evil spirits who wanted to disturb the dead.

The Tang figure is made of terracotta, as are many of the originals, and it is larger than most original tomb figures. Brancusi’s original “Muse” is cast bronze (6.5”x11”x8”). Xu’s is considerably larger and is raised high into the air by the tomb guardian. The combination of the figures represents the contrast between power and peace. The use of clay and bronze, represents a contrast between in the value of the materials. The “Sleeping Muse” is passive and meditative. The Tang figure is about force and protection. They initially do not seem to belong together, but they form a unique whole that inspires thought.

 Xu’s explanation makes sense: “When I play with cultural elements, they don’t carry the same weight as they do for others. It’s not a lack of respect but I feel I can be audacious with such forms because I have a greater distance from them.” 

“Hello” (2018-19)

“Hello” (2018-19) (stainless steel, Styrofoam, polyurethane, silicone, paint, and a robotic mechanism) is a toppled Corinthian column like those found in many Greek and Roman temples. Xu has not broken the shaft into pieces; they remain connected and curl around like the body of a snake. Snakes play a significant role in Greek mythology. They are symbols of knowledge, healing, and connection between the Earth and the underworld. The column’s capital, with its wide mouth, is mechanically engineered to follow the viewer. Surprise!  Xu explains, “Here, I’ve used a traditional thing and renewed it in some way. It also has a threatening aspect, like the imperial civilizations in the Greek tradition, of a power system over you, a bit like a shadow. It’s interesting because, in the West, such columns would be used in official buildings such as courthouses and banks, whereas they most often appear in front of public baths in China, or places where you can sing karaoke.”

“Hello” (2022)

“Hello” has been in several exhibitions. Stanford University commissioned in 2022 a fifteen-foot bronze piece for the inaugural exhibition of the Stanford Plinth Project, a new sculpture garden, located in Meyer Green, a 2.45-acre open space. “Hello” sits on a plinth among tall cedar trees, greeting visitors. 

“Alien I” (2017)

“Alien I” (2017) (31’x28’x47’) is composed of 28 kneeling figures in a wire caged prison setting. The pose of the figures in derived from Eastern Han Dynasty kneeling servant figures dating from c. 206 CE. The color of the robes immediately suggests today’s orange prison uniforms. The black head gear makes the figures anonymous and calls to mind the black head coverings worn by prisoners in detention centers.  The viewer is in some way the prison guard. Xu mentions the constant media coverage of such images today, and the desensitization of people about oppression.

“St Peter’s Basilica” (2023)

Xu began in 2023 a series of sculptures he called Tools. Using modern day commonly used commercial items, he created sculptures. “St. Peter’s Basilica” (71”x71”x41″) is one of several significant Catholic churches depicted in the series.  Filled hand sanitizer bottles replace the domes of St Peter’s. Viewers are encouraged to use the hand sanitizer. Xu combines the great items of history and art with one of the most commonly used products today. 

“Roman Columns and Meat Grinder” (2024)

In “Roman Columns and Meat Grinder” (2024) (35’x16’x12’) Xu uses once again a Roman Corinthian column, symbolic as the stabilizer of Western culture. Romans assimilated the knowledge of Greek philosophy, literature, and art into their system of law and administration, creating the core of Western culture. This time the column is put through a meat grinder which instead of mincing it into little pieces, produces multiple columns. 

In 2019 an interviewer asked Xu the question: “Many of your works walk a line between humor and darkness, between hope and threat. What draws you to this way of making?” Xu responded, “Perhaps it’s related to my own temperament. When I create a work, I’m always trying to find some kind of contradiction. I don’t like it to be completely white or black. When people look at my works, they sometimes try to find the black part or the white part. Through that, there’s a kind of democratic aspect, a kind of balance you can find in it. After creating work for twenty years, I wonder if it might also be related to the Chinese tradition of the yin and yang. While my work might appear direct, when you really try to understand it, I hope the meaning becomes a bit more blurry in the end.”

NOTE: Xu’s sculptures are composed of a variety of materials depending on the need. Among them are glass fiber, reinforced concrete, marble grains, limestone, chalk, artificial stone, sandstone grains, steel, and mineral pigments. The process includes scanning the original sculptures, working with 3D software, printing parts, and hand molding and casting. 

Beverly Hall Smith was a professor of art history for 40 years. Since retiring to Chestertown with her husband Kurt in 2014, she has taught art history classes at WC-ALL and the Institute of Adult Learning, Centreville. An artist, she sometimes exhibits work at River Arts. She also paints sets for the Garfield Theater in Chestertown.