The Olympics began officially in 776 BCE, but games have been recorded as early as the 9th Century BCE. The Roman historian Dio Chrystostom (40-115 CE) wrote in the Rhodian Discourse, “You know that the Olympian crown is olive leaves, and yet many have preferred this honor to life itself, not because there is anything wonderful about the olive that grows there, because it is not given carelessly or for slight achievement.”  

There were four games: the Olympic, the Nemean, the Isthmian, and the Pythian. One was held each year in a four-year cycle, and the same rules applied. Each game was dedicated to a male god. In 566 BCE, the Panathenaic games started in the city of Athens and honored Athena, the patron of the city. The events included sports competitions, banquets, processions, and there were contests in poetry and music. Olympic athletes received olive wreaths made from the olive tree of Zeus, and they were celebrated with life-size statues. At the Panathenaic game, winners received olive wreaths from Athena’s olive grove and a black-figure vases filled with olive oil.

After the unexplained decline in c.1100 BCE of the Minoan and the Mycenean civilizations, Greece went through a period of dark ages.  The first major artistic development was vase painting, in what is called the Geometric period (c. 900 BCE). The clay around Athens was discovered to be excellent for pottery making. It contained iron oxide giving it an orange-red color with a sheen when it was fired.  

Black Figure Geometric Krater (c.750-735 BCE) is a large two- handled vase. Such vases ranged from approximately fourteen to twenty-two inches in height. The vase was used to dilute wine with water. The period was named Geometric by art historians because the first vases were painted with complex geometric patterns. By 750 BCE, painters had added a row of female mourners with their hands on their heads, standing on either side of a coffin that included men and dogs. The lower row depicted warriors either marching or driving chariots and holding figure-eight shields. The figures were composed of simple geometric shapes. The subject came from the stories of the Greek gods and heroes, later written down by Homer in the Iliad and Odyssey. Such elaborate funeral rites were given to Greek kings and warriors.

“Wrestling” (c.500 BCE) (Archaic period, c.700-480 BCE) (6.5’’x9’’) is a skypos (deep drinking cup), painted by the Theseus painter. Wrestling was very popular, and with the exception of biting and attacking the genitals, everything was legal. Snapping fingers, breaking arms, and breaking other bones was typical. Wrestlers were naked and covered with oil. Wrestling standing up was held in a sand filled pit, and one wrestler had to throw the other three times to be the winner. Ground wrestling was over when one man was so exhausted he quit. 

Archaic vase painters have made significant strides in depicting the human body. Proportions improved, and knowledge of musculature is evident in this piece. The potter who made the vase was not the painter. The painter used slip, a mixture of clay and water, to paint. The color of the clay was orange/red as was the color of the slip. This meant the artist applied paint the same color as the vase. The muscles were articulated by incising lines. First, the kiln was heated to 800 degrees centigrade, and the vase remained orange/red. In the second stage, reduction, the kiln vents were closed, and the temperature increased to 950 degrees centigrade. The addition of green wood to the kiln created smoke, causing the vase to turn black. Finally, the vents were opened, and oxygen entered. The non-painted areas returned to orange/red, and the thicker painted areas remained black.

The trophies of the Panathenaea were amphorae filled with olive oil from Athena’s olive grove. Athena is shown on one side and the sport on the opposite side. “Two-horse Chariot Race” (c.510 BCE) (25’’) was by the Legos group painters. Athena, goddess of wisdom, war, and crafts, wears a helmet, brandishes a spear, and holds a shield depicting an image of Nike, the goddess of victory. On pedestals on either side are roosters, representing Athena’s war aspect, because roosters were combative. The skin of Athena and Nike is white, created by adding a white slip of kaolinite, a technique used sparingly in the Archaic period. 

A two-horse chariot race is depicted on the opposite side. Two horse heads are visible, one parallel with the other. To make sure the horses were complete, the artist painted eight back and front legs.

“Four-horse Chariot Race” (c.410-400 BCE) is an amphora from the Panathenaea games. The painter made progress in the depiction of the driver and the horses. The details of the four horses are more realistic. The horses’ heads are incised to show eyes, mouths, ears, and main. Each has a bridle and breast plate which is decorated with white slip dots. The bearded charioteer is dressed in a white chiton and a leather belt. Two and four horse chariots raced12 laps which equaled 9 miles. 

This race was the one event where a woman could win a trophy. Women, foreigners, and slaves were not allowed to participate in any form, even as members of the audience. However, wealthy women could sponsor a chariot and horses in the race, and could win. The law stated that women would be thrown off a cliff if they trespassed. Only the priestess of Demeter and her virgins were allowed to be present at the events. 

The “Hoplitodromos” (c.323-322 BCE) (26”x33’’) is a Panathenaea amphora depicting the foot race, one of the essential elements of the games. The foot race, known as a stade, was one length of the stadium. Hoplites were the civilian soldiers who wore helmets and carried shields and spears into battle. The introduction of this special foot race for hoplites was a later development. The weight of the shield and sword was approximately 12 pounds.

“Music and Dance” (c.510 BCE) (13”) is a pelike wine jar with a depiction of two male dancers and a musician playing an aulos, a double reed, double piped instrument. The games included musical and poetic competitions. A man could win a prize by reciting a Homeric poem most rhapsodically.  Rhapsodist was the Greek word for reciter of epic poetry. Singers were accompanied by the aulus or a lute. Drama contests also were held. 

Plato described the importance of music in Republic : “The music master makes rhythm and harmony familiar to the souls of boys, and they become gentler and more refined and having more rhythm and harmony in them they become more efficient in speech and in action.  The whole life of a man stands in need of good harmony and good rhythm…In keeping the harmony of his body in tune, his constant aim is to preserve the symphony which resides in the soul.”

 

 “Discobolus” (c.510-500 BCE) (7.7’’) is an example of the development of red-figure vase painting in c.530 BCE.  Reversing the process, the artists painted the background with slip. As a result, the figure appeared more human. The artist’s knowledge of anatomy had advanced. This artist created a composition using elegant curves that perfectly echo the circular shape of the stemmed drinking cup, a kylix. The inscription around the right edge of the kylix reads, “Cleomelos is beautiful.”

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Looking at the Masters: Beverly Hall Smith was a professor of art history for 40 years. Since retiring to Chestertown with her husband Kurt in 2014, she has taught art history classes at WC-ALL and the Institute of Adult Learning, Centreville. An artist, she sometimes exhibits work at River Arts. She also paints sets for the Garfield Theater in Chestertown.

The Mycenaean civilization (1600-1100 BCE) was the source for Homer’s epic poems Iliad and Odyssey.  King Agamemnon of the city of Mycenae had to unite the rulers of several other Greek cities to form the army that would go to Troy to rescue the beautiful Helen, wife of Menelaus. Among the male heroes were Achilles, Nestor, Odysseus, Ajax, Hector, Paris, all familiar names in the Iliad. 

 

 

The city of Mycenae is located on a fortified hilltop 900 feet above sea level on the Greek mainland, 21 nautical miles from Crete. Crete had declined by c.1450 BCE and was occupied by the Mycenaeans at that time. They were hunters and farmers, not sea going people. Heinrich Schliemann (1822-1890), business man and amateur archologist, was obsessed with Troy and Mycenae. After trying unsuccessfully to find Troy, he turned his attention to Mycenae. He began digging in 1876. He discovered a grave circle which included 19 burials: nine males, eight females, and two children. He determined that six were royal graves. They contained skeletons covered in gold, gold jewelry, swords, spears, and daggers. Schliemann called the most impressive gold death mask the “Mask of Agamemnon” (c.1550-1500 BCE) (10.5’’) (gold sheets). Homer wrote in the Iliad, “rich in gold Mycenae.” Other gold death masks were found: a gold lion-headed rhyton (drinking cup in the shape of an animal head), a bull-headed rhyton with gold horns, and a gold stemmed goblet he called the “Cup of Nestor.” Homer stated that Nestor was the only man who could lift the cup when it was full of wine. The cup weighed over a half pound.

“Lion Hunt Daggar” (c. !600-1500 BCE) (detail) is a depiction of four hunters carrying shields and who are about to kill a charging lion. A fifth male lies on the ground, probably killed by the lion.  According to Homer, and confirmed by Schliemann’s discoveries, the Mycenaeans were skilled warriors and used spears for their long reach. Spears were cheaper to make than daggers because they required less bronze, making them available to the lower classes. Two rectangular shields are depicted. The figure-eight-shield, also seen in frescoes and other ornaments on Crete, was made of curved wood and layers of cow hide. A fresco of a figure-eight-shield is behind the dagger blade. The shield’s copper supports can be seen in the fresco. This shield offered greater protection; in some images the shield almost enclosed the warrior. Making these shields required more time and expense. The figure-eight-shield is thought to be intended for use in rituals. 

The “Warrior Vase” (12th Century BCE) is another example supporting the importance of the army in Mycenaean culture. Warriors walking in one direction appear on both sides of the vase. This group of warriors wear bull-horned helmets, short chitons, and greaves on their legs for protection. Each carries a long spear with a knapsack tied to it. The knapsack is an indication they had traveled some distance. Mycenaean artists did not reach the level of skill found on Crete. The profile noses, in particular, appear comical to the modern viewer. The vase dates from the end of the Mycenaean Period and is an illustration of the decline of the civilization by c.1100 BCE.

Schliemann’s quest for treasure was to end on June 15, 1873. That day he struck gold. He called it Priam’s Gold, believing it was the treasure of gold brought home from Priam’s palace in Troy. “Sophia Schliemann” (1873) is a photograph of his wife wearing just a few pieces of gold jewelry he had found. Gold diadems, earrings, bracelets, necklaces, pins, rings, and belts, were among the objects. The workmanship was excellent, indicating Mycenaean royal women were rich. The high quality of the items also indicates that Mycenaean trade with Crete was active when Crete was dominant, and the Mycenaean’s appreciated their beauty.  Many of the items were made in Crete, not Mycenae.

Jewelry motifs ranged from lilies, elaborate flowers, seashell, spirals, bull heads, acorns, gold discs, and eagles.  The treasure included silver and bronze pins with rock crystal heads, amber beads, gold rings with Minoan goddess images, hunting and dueling scenes, and skeletons wrapped in gold sheeting. 

Mycenaean ruins were found in Tiryns (Kingdom of Nestor), Lerna, Pylos, Argos, and Thebes. A large room in the palace of Tiryns was decorated with a fresco that extended around all four walls. It began with “Chariot Drivers’’ (c.1200 BCE) (20” high) depicting two Mycenaean women, with white skin. They participate in a religious ceremony or are hunting. They ride through a forest of trees that resemble fans. The red color of the tree, chariots, and horse is the same red color found in Minoan frescoes. The women do not have the elaborate puffed sleeves and layered skirts of the women of Crete. Both men and women wear simple chitons. Curves appear in the composition, but only in places where one would expect to find them: a tree shape, a chariot wheel, and the rear end of the horse. Many straight lines add formality and rigidness to the scene. Continuing along the walls, people walk with spears and ride in carts or chariots. Greyhounds, deer, and hares are also included. Kills are made by both men and women. Men and women appear to have an equal place in the hunt.

“Boar Tusk Helmet” (14th Century BCE), according to Homer was given to Odysseus by the Cretan hero Meriones. Several of these helmets have been found, this one at Tiryns.  Made of 40 to 50 boar tusks, with a lining of woven leather straps and a felt cap, the helmet would have been extremely expensive.  The tusks run in alternate directions in each row. Depictions of boar hunts decorate weapons, jewelry, and frescoes. Boars’ heavily muscled bodies, their tough hides, and sharp tusks make them dangerous and hard to kill. They were hunted only for their tusks. The boar tusk helmets were a symbol of wealth and male power. 

The Mycenaean civilization was in decline by 1100 BCE. As with Crete, the specific reasons are not known. A period known as the Dark Ages ended in c.900 BCE with the rise of Greek culture that and prospered through the Geometric, Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic periods.   

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Looking at the Masters: Beverly Hall Smith was a professor of art history for 40 years. Since retiring to Chestertown with her husband Kurt in 2014, she has taught art history classes at WC-ALL and the Institute of Adult Learning, Centreville. An artist, she sometimes exhibits work at River Arts. She also paints sets for the Garfield Theater in Chestertown.

“There is an island called Crete in the midst of the wine-dark sea, a fair land and rich with water, and therein are many men innumerable, and 90 cities…and among these cities is the mighty city of Knossos, wherein Minos when he was nine years old began to rule, he who held converse with great Zeus.” (Homer, Odyssey, Book 10)

 

Crete, an island in the Aegean Sea south of the Greek mainland, was inhabited as early as 7000 BCE with a population of 25-50 people. Crete suffered from earthquakes, and the palace of Knossos was rebuilt several times. The palace was constructed c.1900 BCE and was destroyed c.1350 BCE. Excavation of the palace was first begun in 1877, but work was halted by conflicts with the Ottoman government.

 The Greek myths of Theseus and the minotaur and Daedalus and the labyrinth are set on Crete. British archeologist Arthur Evans was inspired by the myths, and he began extensive excavations at Knossos. Two foremen and 32 diggers began to work on the flower-covered hill in March 1900. Excavation of the site continues today. The existing palace covers 150,000 square feet. Outer structures remain under excavation.

A steep road leads up the mountain from the seaport. The “Ladies in Blue” (c.1600-1430 BCE) (fresco) got its name, as did most of the images, from Evans. Images of women abound on Crete and give us insight into a culture where men and women were equal, unlike many ancient civilizations.  The three women’s heads are in profile, and their black hair is elaborately coiffed and decorated with strings of pearls. Their long elegant necks lead to a frontal view their bare breasts surrounded by puffed gold and blue sleeves

 

“Snake Goddess” (c.1650-1400 BCE) (faience, a fired quartz paste with lustrous sheen) is one of many found on Crete. The bodice and breasts, narrow waist, and several layers of skirt are typical of the dresses worn by the women of Crete. With her arms outstretched, the woman controls a snake in each hand. Other Snake Goddess figurines include snakes coiling around the waist, breasts, and arms. On her head is a crown with a cat or panther on top. She could be described as “Mistress of the Animals,” similar to female figures from other cultures. She is a divine figure with great power; both men and women worship her.

The “Queen’s Megaron” (c.1700-1450 BCE) (Queen’s Room) is well-ventilated with windows, doors, and air shafts, allowing sea breezes to keep the air fresh. A small female figure can be seen on the door at the right side of the room. Two interior doors are decorated with a motif of blue flowers and a red spiral design found in seashells. One of the doors leads to the Queen’s bathroom, where a bathtub was found. It could be filled with water and then overturned onto a floor drain. The second door leads to a latrine with a seat over a drain. It could be flushed by pouring water into it with a jug, and the drain below is connected to an extensive underground drain system. Fresh water from a nearby mountain spring was funneled into a system of terracotta pipes that carried fresh water throughout the palace. Another system supplied fresh water to the town below. Water management and waste disposal were exceptional for the time.

The large “Dolphin Fresco” on the wall of the Queen’s megaron provides another example of a culture that enjoyed life. Humans and Dolphins had a close relationship because they were considered sailors’ friends. As a result, stories of dolphins saving ships and men from drowning made them a good omen. Dolphins were thought to be messengers from the gods. The five dolphins swim with schools of smaller fish in a painted wave pattern of water. Sea corals protrude from the top and bottom of the scene.   

As islanders, the Minoans were not afraid of attack, because they dominated the seas. They had all the resources they needed on the island or from trade. Their storage rooms held terra cotta jars (pithoi), as tall as a human, decorated with wave patterns. Minoan potters employed several decorative devises, none more famous than the curling legs of an octopus. 

The Minoans had the time to think, plan, and take full advantage of the sea’s offerings provided by their guardian, the god Poseidon. Unlike Egyptian art at the time, Minoan art is full of curved lines.  Almost no straight lines appear. Gentle curves and circular images are the hallmark of a relaxed society.   

One popular image, “Bull Leaping” (c.1450-1400 BCE) (fresco on stucco relief) (30.8’’x41.1’’) (“Toreador Fresco”) celebrated the athletic skills of both men and women. This popular image was repeated on gold rings and in sculpture. The bull is composed of elegant curved lines from horns to tail. The male figure, painted in red to indicate he is more often outside in the sun, is placed in the middle position, summersaulting over the bull’s back. The two females, painted in white to depict their more delicate skin, are placed at the beginning and the end of the leap. The female at the left grabs the horns preparing to leap, the male at the center somersaults, and the female at the right has just dismounted, sticking the landing. The figures wear loin cloths. Their hair is curled at the top, with curls falling down their backs. The muscles of their athletic bodies are emphasized. The scene is famed by decoratively painted rocks.

The myth of King Minos tells of his request to Poseidon, the god of the Sea, to send him a bull, a symbol of fertility, strength, and renewal. Minos prayed for a son, and promised to sacrifice the bull as an offering in thanksgiving. Poseidon sent a spectacular bull, and the king was hesitant to kill it, preferring to keep it for breeding. Aphrodite, angered by this betrayal, caused Minos’s wife to lust after the bull. Daedalus, the court architect, was persuaded to make her a cow suit, and she mated with the bull. The child was the Minitour, a man with the head of a bull who rampaged across the land of Crete. Minos ordered Daedalus to build a labyrinth under the palace to contain the Minitour, because he would not dare to kill him. Images of bull horns in the palace are prominent. For example, visitors walking up to Knossos pass by pairs of carved bull horns that are seven feet tall and over six feet wide.  

 

Throne Room (15th Century) was a place for ceremony and administration. The red walls were typical of many rooms in Knossos. An alabaster seat, called a throne by Evan, was built into the north wall, and its back was designed with long curves. A lustral basin, a tub for purification, was set in front of the throne. Benches of gypsum were placed around the walls. Around the walls, are large frescoes of reclining griffins, a mythological animal that was part lion and part eagle. The combination of the two created a creature of both earth and sky, symbols of divinity and kingship. Behind the griffins are tall lilies. The griffons and lilies also were prevalent in paintings and in small sculptures on signet rings and other decorations in the palace.  

An earthquake in the 15th Century BCE destroyed Crete. The splendor that was the palace of Knossos was unearthed and is in process of being restored. 

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Beverly Hall Smith was a professor of art history for 40 years. Since retiring to Chestertown with her husband Kurt in 2014, she has taught art history classes at WC-ALL and the Institute of Adult Learning, Centreville. An artist, she sometimes exhibits work at River Arts. She also paints sets for the Garfield Theater in Chestertown.

The myth of Orpheus was the subject of poetry by the famous Roman poets Virgil (79-19 BCE) in Georgics, Book IV, and Ovid (43 BCE -17 CE) in Metamorphosis, Book 10. The story inspired artists, painters, sculptors, and musicians over the centuries.

Orpheus was the son of the muse Calliope, goddess of epic poetry, and either Apollo or the King of Thrace. “Orpheus” (c. 200-250 CE) is a Roman floor mosaic from the Piazza della Vittoria in Palermo. His musical gifts were said to be extraordinary; they charmed every animal from snakes and turtles to bulls and tigers, even birds. Orpheus is depicted in the mosaic as young and handsome. He holds his lyre and plectrum, the instrument for plucking the strings. He wears the conical Phrygian cap from Persia and Thrace.

 

“Nymphs Listening to the Songs of Orpheus” (1853) (oil) (44’’x36’’) (Walters Gallery, Baltimore) was painted by Charles Francois Jalabert (1819-1901). He was a popular society painter who worked in the Academy style. The wood nymphs, who lounge among the rocks on the soft grasses of the woods, where particularly fond of Orpheus’s music and songs. Jalabert poses Orpheus at the rear of the composition, surrounded by the woods, and for dramatic effect in silhouette. It was said that even the grass, flowers, and trees swayed with the sound of his music. In his play Henry VIII, Shakespeare wrote, “Orpheus and his lute made trees,/And the mountain tops that freeze,/Bow themselves when he did sing.”

 Orpheus journeyed with the Argonauts to Colchis to find the Golden Fleece. His music was so powerful that it saved them from the songs of the Sirens. When he came home, he married Eurydice, the nymph he dearly loved. While she wandered among the flowers, she was bitten by a snake, and she died. Orpheus enticed with his music the boatman Charon to ferry him to Hades. He played his music for Pluto, the god of the Underworld, and his wife Persephone, and he begged them to allow Eurydice to return with him to the world of the living.  “Orpheus and Eurydice” (1636-38) (76’’x96’’) (Prado Museum, Madrid) was painted by Peter Paul Rubens for the Torre de la Parada hunting lodge near Madrid.

Rubens placed Pluto and Persephone on thrones under a black canopy appropriate for a king and queen. At their feet, the three headed dog Cerberus, who guards the gates to the Underworld, is calmed by Orpheus’s music. Persephone sympathizes with the lovers’ plight. Rubens painted Eurydice’s flesh a pale, almost white hue, a reference to her recent death. Orpheus, carrying his lyre, walks firmly ahead of Eurydice. She seems thankful he seems worried. Pluto released them on one condition described by Ovid: “She was among the recent ghosts, and walked haltingly from her wound. The poet of Rhodope received her, and, at the same time, accepted this condition, that he must not turn his eyes behind him, until he emerged from the vale of Avernus, or the gift would be null and void.’’

This painting is one of Rubens’s last works, made shortly before his death. His love for his two wives is well documented, and he painted them frequently and lovingly. Many of his paintings are a testament to his wives. Both Persephone and Eurydice closely resemble them. 

“Orpheus Leading Eurydice from the Underworld” (1861) (44’’x54”), by French Barbizon artist Camille Corot (1796-1875), carries the story forward. Barbizon artists were the first to explore plein air painting. Corot added white paint to all the colors to create a uniquely hazy and mysterious atmosphere. Orpheus and Eurydice almost reach the light, out of the shadows of the Underworld. Beyond the water, the figures of the dead look on.  Orpheus, unable to resist the urge, will look back. Eurydice will disappear instantly into the Underworld.

“Death of Orpheus” (c.1540) (Majolica Earthenware) was created by Nicola de Urbino. His majolica pieces were among the most famous and sought after during the Italian Renaissance. He chose subjects from Ovid’s Metamorphosis. Orpheus, overwhelmed by the loss of Eurydice, spent the next three years ignoring all women. In anger, the nymphs of Thrace beat Orpheus to death, then tore his body apart. 

Majolica originated in Spain and became popular in Italy in the 15th Century.  It is tin-glazed earthenware with a white glazed surface that is painted with metal oxide enamel color.

 

“Nymphs Finding the Head of Orpheus” (1900) (59”x39’’) was painted by John William Waterhouse (1894-1917), a pre-Raphaelite painter in London. Orpheus’s head and his lyre floated to the Island of Lesbos where it was discovered by the nymphs. Waterhouse’s nymphs are beautiful, as is the head of Orpheus. The exquisite details of the fabrics and folds of the garments are typical of the pre-Raphaelite style. The nymphs sit on glistening rocks with flowers that twine around their bodies. Flowering waterlilies float on the emerald green water. 

The nymphs gathered the parts of his body and buried them. Orpheus’s soul descended into the Underworld to reunite with Eurydice’s. His lyre became the constellation Lyra. The cult of Orpheus became a legend in Thrace. Orpheus was born in the Rhodope mountains of Thrace, modern day Bulgaria.

The myth of Orpheus also has been the subject of musical compositions. Monteverdi composed the opera Orfeo (1607), and Gluck composed the opera Orpheus and Eurydice (1762). Offenbach composed the opera Orpheus in the Underworld (1858), and Jean Cocteau wrote a play (1926) and made a film (1940). 

Audrey Flack was born in1931 in Brighton Beach, New York. She died at the age of 93 on June 28, this year. Her parents were Jewish immigrants from Poland. They owned a garment factory in New York City. Always interested in art, Flack attended the High School of Music and Art and Copper Union, both in New York. She received a BFA (1952) from Yale University. She was recruited by Josef Albers to study drawing and anatomy at the Art Students League in New York. She also studied art history at New York University of Fine Arts.

Flack came to public notice with “Kennedy Motorcade” (1964) (oil) (37.5”x 42”). Photorealism became the new and popular style of painting in the 1960s. Photorealists used photographs as the subject of their art, a return to realism after the wave of Abstract Expressionism. Flack was the only woman in the movement: “I broke the unwritten code of acceptable subject matter. Photorealists painted cars, motorcycles, and empty street scenes. Cool, unemotional, and banal were the terms used to describe the movement. My work, however, was humanist, emotional, and filled with referential symbolic imagery.”

Flack discovered in the 1970s two new methods to create her work: color slide projection and application of paint in layers with an airbrush. “Leonardo’s Lady” (1974) (oil and acrylic) (6’2’’x6’8’’) is an example of her new subject matter and style. Her continued interest in art history is evident in her choice of subject matter. The da Vinci portrait (1490-95) is a depiction of Lucrezia Crivelli, a married lady, who was lady-in-waiting to the Duchess of Milan and one of the Duke of Milan’s many mistresses.  Flack includes a small statue of cupid and the reflection of the statue in the mirror of the compact. A pink rose, a Renaissance ribbon, and a very ripe pear also are included, the pear often a symbol of fruitfulness and femininity. Flack paintedd items from the modern world: perfume bottles, nail polish, jewelry, and a glass of wine. The man’s pocket watch is a reminder that time is passing. Flack’s still life paintings are complex works full of symbols.

Hilton Kramer (1928-2012), a well-known art critic who wrote for several New York papers and magazines, disliked Photorealism and criticized Flack’s work. He was very upset that Flack’s “Lonardo’s Lady,” by the only woman in Photorealism, was also the first to be purchased (1976) by the Museum of Modern Art in New York City.  

“World War II (Vanitas)” (1978) (oil over acrylic) (8’x8’) is an example of Flack’s wide range of subject matter. In the 16th Century, artists in Leiden, Holland, started a new type of still life that became known as a Vanitas, the Latin word meaning vanity. The style specifically included elements such as skulls, hourglasses, and burning candles that signified time was running out and death was at hand. Included with these elements concerning the passage of time were luxury elements like books, jewelry, and flowers. Flack also increased the size of her paintings. This one is 8’x8’, and everything in it is larger than life.

A Jew, Flack was conscious of the treatment of Jews during World War II. The background image in the painting is Margaret Bourke-White’s photograph “The Living Dead at Buchenwald” (1945). Bourke-White was the first photographer to enter the camp after it was liberated. Flack includes a bright blue butterfly signifying the release of the soul. In contrast, a rotting pear is placed on a plate with three luscious pastries. 

A string of pearls is draped down the left side of the composition. At the top right, a clock displays the time: ten minutes before twelve.  A red candle is burning. A star of David is next to it. Under a fresh red rose is a page with the Hasidic text that ends with “Do not fear, dear child, God is with you. Even in the Nethermost Pit one can try to come closer to God. The word ‘bad’ never came to their lips. Disasters did not frighten them. You can take everything from me—the pillow from under my head, my house—but you cannot take God from my heart.”  When the still life was set up for the photoshoot, the lit candle began to drip on the page. Flack included it when she realized it reminded her of the bloodshed during the Holocaust.

Flack married in 1964. They had two daughters, one of whom was autistic. Her husband was abusive, and she divorced him. The 1980s brought a happy marriage and a major change in the direction of her art. “Civitas” (1988) (patinated and gilded bronze) (East Glass flame) (4’8’’x10’7’’) was commissioned for the garden of the New Orleans Museum of Art. Civitas is the Latin word for citizenship. Flack’s large sculptural works are female figures, drawn from myth, and given feminist themes. The goddesses are mature and strong. Flack described them as “real and yet idealized…the goddesses in everywoman.” “Civitas” stands on a globe set on a marble pedestal. She holds a crystal flame above her head. She is a mixture of a human and a mythological figure, a bit like Wonder Woman. 

Although Flack was commissioned to create many sculptures, she also continued making still life paintings. “A Brush with Destiny” (2012) (acrylic, mixed media) (40”x40”) is from her last series of paintings that she called Post-Pop Baroque. Similar to her sculptures, these paintings were about empowered woman. “A Brush with Destiny” is a self-portrait of Flack at a younger age. She is lavishly dressed as Queen Elizabeth I, with a ruff collar, pearl crown, and necklace. Her heavy brocade gown is dyed scarlet and black, costly dyes at the time. The dress is decorated with embroidery and jewels. At her left is a copy of Elizabeth Vigee-Lebrun self-portrait (1790), in which she holds her palette and brush as she paints. Vigee-Lebrun painted her portrait for the collection of the Uffizi Museum in Florence. At Flack’s right is the image from one of the few photographs taken of the painter Jackson Pollock at work.  Flack holds a green leafy vine and a red rose. Flack’s destiny was to span the old world and the new world of art. 

“When I’m painting now, everything is at my fingertips. It’s magical. They say before you die, you see everything from your life. In my 92 years, a lot pops up.” (Audrey Flack, Vogue, Spring 2024)

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Beverly Hall Smith was a professor of art history for 40 years. Since retiring to Chestertown with her husband Kurt in 2014, she has taught art history classes at WC-ALL and the Institute of Adult Learning, Centreville. An artist, she sometimes exhibits work at River Arts. She also paints sets for the Garfield Theater in Chestertown.

Frank Shepard Fairey (b.1970, Charleston, SC) is an artist, activist, and entrepreneur.  He completed a BA (1992) in illustration at the Rhode Island School of Design. Fairey first came to public notice while a student with his sticker campaign “ANDRE THE GIANT HAS A POSSE” (1989). He posted the stickers everywhere: “At first, I was only thinking about the response from my clique of art school and skateboard friends. The fact that a larger segment of the public would not only notice, but investigate, the unexplained appearance of the stickers was something I had not contemplated. When I started to see reactions and consider the sociological forces at work surrounding the use of public space and the insertion of a very eye-catching but ambiguous image, I began to think there was the potential to create a phenomenon.”

Andre the Giant (Andre Rene Roussinoff) was 7’4’’ tall and weighed 520 pounds. He was a world-class professional wrestler. One million “ANDRE THE GIANT HAS A POSSE” stickers were distributed world-wide. Fairey quickly produced thousands of posters with just Andre’s face and text OBEY. That led to his OBEY clothing line of T-shirts and silkscreen stickers. 

Fairey established OBEY Clothing in 2001 to support his humanitarian efforts. One hundred percent of the profits from the clothing line went to several charities, including Hope for Darfur, Feed America, earthquake relief in Haiti, Adopt-a Pet, Dark Wave/Rising Sun for Japan relief, and Alaskan Wildlife Relief. Fairey also was commissioned to design album covers for the Black- Eyed Peas and Smashing Pumpkins, among others, and movie posters for the Johnny Cash film “Walk the Line.” During these early years, Fairey also was offered several exhibitions by galleries and museums.

Fairey’s poster “HOPE” (2008) brought him greater fame. He created a series of posters supporting Barack Obama for US President, unknown to the Obama campaign. Fairey produced and distributed 300,000 stickers and 500,000 posters.  Peter Schyeldahl, art critic for The New Yorker, called the poster “the most efficacious American political illustration since Uncle Sam Wants You.” The National Portrait Gallery in Washington, DC, purchased the portrait for its collection in 2009. TIME, Esquire, and GQ published articles about Fairey and the poster. Fairey donated the proceeds to the ACLU and Feed America.

In a letter dated February 22, 2008, Barack Obama thanked Fairey: “I would like to thank you for using your talent in support of my campaign. The political messages involved in your work have encouraged Americans to believe they can change the status quo. Your images have a profound effect on people, whether seen in a gallery or on a stop sign. I am privileged to be a part of your artwork and proud to have your support. I wish you continued success and creativity.”

Fairey used without permission a photograph taken by Mannie Garcia. He pleaded guilty to one count of criminal contempt because he had destroyed the evidence. He was sentenced to two years’ probation and fined $25,000. Fairey has been arrested for defacing public property and vandalism. He paid court costs and fees, and now coordinates with individuals who are subjects in his posters. Time Magazine named him Person of the Year for “HOPE” and two other posters “Arab Spring” and “Occupy Wall Street” (2011).

The Advertising Council of America and Fairey partnered to create posters for Feeding America in 2010. He also created posters for the ACLU in 2010.

Fairey was commissioned to paint the mural “Nelson Mandela” (2014) on Juta Street in Braamfontein, Johannesburg, painted on the top nine stories of the building. The mural overlooks the Nelson Mandela Bridge. Patrick Gaspard, the American Ambassador to South Africa, described it as “a huge exclamation point downtown which makes us remember the entire liberation struggle and the remarkably peaceful transition to freedom Nelson Mandela achieved.” The mural is one of several Fairey has been commissioned to paint. 

Fairey began in 2016 a poster campaign titled “WE THE PEOPLE,” inspired by the opening words of the Preamble to the US Constitution. The images were of a Native American, an African American, a Muslim, and a Latina. The posters were each 30”x40.” This image of “WE THE PEOPLE” combines three of the posters into one that could be downloaded for a donation of $25 to support the cause of equality. On Inauguration Day 2017, a large group of people paraded across the Capitol grounds and carried “WE THE PEOPLE” posters into the streets, hung them in windows, and pasted them on walls. Rallies with the posters continued through 2017. 

The posters include both images and text: a Muslim woman, wearing an American flag as a hijab, and the words ARE GREATER THAN FEAR, an African American with the words PROTECT EACH OTHER, and the Latina with the words DEFEND DIGNITY. Not included here is a poster with the image of an American Indian and the words WE THE RESILIENT HAVE BEEN HERE BEFORE. “WE THE PEOPLE” posters also were carried during the 2017 Women’s March. Fairey stated, “I’ve presented a counterargument to what I consider some of the monolithic forces of oppression that most people feel powerless to do anything about.”

One of Fairey’s poster series, “FLOWER POWER,” depicted oil wells spouting flowers, not oil. Fairey supports the transition from fossil fuels. “MOTHER NATURE ON THE RUN” (2020) (stencil) (12”x9’’) was part of Fairey’s Mother Nature series. A large, ripe orange with healthy green leaves is ready for picking. The orange is a hand grenade. Fairey also included his iconic word OBEY. The image is intended to protest the genetic modification of fruits and vegetables by corporations for their profit. Fairey believed “every day should be Earth Day. We are part of nature, not above it, and when we don’t treat our home well, it will eventually not treat us well. We (powerful corporations especially) are behaving like the earth is indestructible…and it isn’t!”

 

Fairey and his crew painted the mural “WHILE SUPPLIES LAST” (2022) in the East quarter of Dallas, Texas, on Commerce and Cesar Chavez roads. A frequent motif in Fairey’s works is flowers, which he regards as a “symbol of positive growth and harmony.” Four colorful flowers with decorative stems are painted across the mural, with the face of a female environmental activist on the right side. At the lower left corner is what looks to be an advertisement WHILE SUPPLIES LAST. Fairey explains, “Whatever you treasure from nature, protect it so the supply is renewable.” The mural was painted in three days in September. The temperature was in the high 90’s.  

“I consider myself a populist artist. I want to reach people through as many different platforms as possible. Street art is a bureaucracy-free way of reaching people, but T-shirts, stickers, commercial jobs, the Internet–there are so many different ways that I use to put my work in front of people.” (Shepard Fairey)

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Beverly Hall Smith was a professor of art history for 40 years. Since retiring to Chestertown with her husband Kurt in 2014, she has taught art history classes at WC-ALL and the Institute of Adult Learning, Centreville. An artist, she sometimes exhibits work at River Arts. She also paints sets for the Garfield Theater in Chestertown.

Fireworks began with the setting off of firecrackers in China between 202 BCE and 220 CE in the Han dynasty. Roasting a bamboo stalk in a fire would cause a loud bang when the air pocket in the hollow bamboo expanded and exploded. One Chinese legend tells of Nian, the word meaning year, a frightening monster that appeared on the night before Chinese New Years Eve. Nian ate people and destroyed crops. When the Chinese people discovered that Nian feared fire and loud noises, they began using bamboo firecrackers to scare away the New Year’s monster. 

“Firecrackers in Honor of the Kitchen God” is a painting made in China in 1930. Although it is not a piece of ancient art, it illustrates the significance firecrackers played. The Chinese belief system grew to include monsters who were said to be afraid of fire, sparks, loud noises, bright lights, the color red, and smoke. Firecrackers were used to drive away bad luck and scare evil spirits. The smoke made Yang energy, a positive life energy. Strings of firecrackers became popular during the Tang Dynasty (618-907) when an alchemist accidentally discovered gunpower while trying to make the elixir of life. By the Song Dynasty (960-1279), gunpowder packed in a paper roll with a tissue paper fuse resembled modern fireworks. 

One of the most popular fireworks in China continues to be the firecracker, composed of several small firecrackers strung together. “Firecrackers in Honor of the Kitchen God” (1930) is a painting of the man of the family holding a string of red firecrackers on a pole. A single red firecracker, placed on a rock in the garden, shoots high into the air. The women and children of the family look on from a window with varying degrees of surprise. A woman in the garden comforts a frightened child who clings to her. Another little boy is having a great time. Use of fireworks expanded rapidly beyond driving away evil spirits and protecting the many Chinese gods to celebrating weddings, births, birthdays, moving to a new house, opening businesses, to name a few.

Gunpowder made its way from China to the rest of Asia and to Europe by the 13th Century through missionaries and European diplomats. Europeans developed muskets, cannons, and advanced the development of fireworks. Aerial fireworks were limited to the color of orange.  Firemasters and their assistants, known as green men, set off the fireworks. “The Green Men” (1634) is the cover for The Second Booke, a guide to making and using fireworks. The green men were so-called because they wore fresh green leaves on their heads and clothing to protect themselves from the sparks, Before the celebration, they told jokes while they prepared for the display. The profession was dangerous, and many green men were injured or died when the fireworks malfunctioned.

“For his Grace the Duke of Richmond at Whitehall on the River Thames, on Monday, 15 May 1749’’ (hand colored etching) is a depiction of the fireworks display dedicated to King George II upon his signing the Treaty of Aix la Chapelle in 1748, ending the War of the Australian Succession. The fireworks presentation was produced by the Ruggieri family, five Italian brothers, who pioneered dramatic firework productions for European and other royalty. The event was produced by the Ruggieri brothers, who moved from Italy to France at the invitation of King Louis XV. They mounted fireworks on moving and fixed iron armatures to be set off during the theatrical performance. The fireworks depicted here were still limited to one color, orange. However, the armatures were used to create different shapes as depicted on the borders of the print. Later the Ruggieri brothers introduced color into fireworks with a more spectacular effect. The Ruggieri family business continues in France today.

King George II commissioned a German composer, who settled in London in 1712, to create music to accompany this celebration. The composer was George Frideric Handel (1685-1759) and the music was titled Music for the Royal Fireworks. The work continues to be a popular accompaniment to fireworks today.

Fireworks displays were loved by rulers world-wide, and the Ruggieri family provided many of them. The ‘’Pyrotechnic Celebration following Napoleon’s Marriage to Marie Louise’’ (1821) (broadside print) is a depiction of the event hosted by the City of Paris. The wedding celebration lasted for the month in June in 1810. This print by Pierre Benard describes the final act of this performance that took place on June 14, 1810, at the residence of Princess Paulina Borghese at the Palais De Neuilly. The event consisted of three acts and employed over 500 actors. It began with a mock battle that took place between the two large columns.  The ship City of Paris arrived and anchored between the two forts which erupted with fireworks. The second act of the performance concentrated on the Temple of Peace at the center of the composition. The seated figure inside, wearing gold robes, is most probably a copy of the figure of Zeus in his temple at Olympus. There were fireworks. The third act took place at the Temple of Hymen, the Greek god of marriage, at the top of the mountain. A man and a women stand hand in hand at the front of the altar. And then there were more fireworks

Makers of fireworks added strontium to create deep reds, barium for bright greens, copper for blues, and sodium for yellows. Modern fireworks were born in the 1830’s.  “The Grand Display of Fireworks and Illuminations at the Opening of the Great Suspension Bridge between New York and Brooklyn on the Evening of May 24, 1883.” (1883) (color lithograph) (12”x17,5”) was published by Currier & Ives. Built by John Augustus Roebling, a German engineer, to connect Manhattan and Brooklyn, the Brooklyn Bridge was the longest suspension bridge at 1,595.5 feet The fireworks were set off from boats in the East River and from the tops of the two stone and concrete towers that stand 276.5 feet over the water. Fireworks were also set off from balloons. The event included canon fire. The view is from Manhattan looking toward Brooklyn

President Chester A. Arthur and New York Mayor Franklin Edison made the first crossing as a part of the ceremony. They were greeted by Brooklyn Mayor Seth Low at the eastern end of the bridge. On the next day, 1,800 vehicles and 150,000 people crossed the bridge.

“This day will be most memorable in the history of America. I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great anniversary festival…It ought to be solemnized with pomp and parade, bonfires and illuminations [fireworks]…from one end of this continent to the other, from this time forward forevermore.” (John Adams’s letter to his wife on July 2, 1776, two days before the Declaration of Independence was signed.)

 

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Beverly Hall Smith was a professor of art history for 40 years. Since retiring to Chestertown with her husband Kurt in 2014, she has taught art history classes at WC-ALL and the Institute of Adult Learning, Centreville. An artist, she sometimes exhibits work at River Arts. She also paints sets for the Garfield Theater in Chestertown.

Marlene Yu (b.1937, Taiwan) is a world-famous American artist. She received a BA in fine arts from the National Taiwan Normal University in 1960. She came to American in 1963 and received an MFA from the University of Colorado in 1967. Since coming to America, Yu has been concerned with nature and the environment.

Yu began working on the Glacier Melting Series in 1965, while she was working on her MFA. “Glacier Melting Cracked Ice II” (1965) (acrylic) is among the earliest works in the series. She commented, “In my search for the variation of the many faces of nature, I have found inspiration for artistic expression. I love the many elements in our environment, be they as broad as the horizon beyond or as small as cells under the microscope. In this vast setting, I hope to capture the spirit of the universe, its rhythm and movement, its quiet and angry mood, its colors and forms.” The glacier in the background has already begun to melt, the blue melting sections visible through the white ice.  Sharp blue and white shards represent the cracked ice. The moraine, the rocks and soil left behind the melting glacier, is painted in earth tones on either side of ice shards.

Yu’s painting style is abstract. Her images are based on objects in nature that have been altered to create emotional experiences. There is no right or wrong interpretation of abstract art. The viewer makes all the decisions. This writer’s ideas are neither right nor wrong; they are shared with the reader to stimulate thought.

Yu’s works included small canvases, giant canvases, and prints. “Moonscape” (1993) (print) was influenced by the many photographs taken of the Moon’s surface. 

 Yu’s early series include Forces of Nature (1966-2000), Deep Sea Garden and Sunken Treasures (begun in 1992), and Cave Treasures (begun in1998). Yu and her husband James founded in 2001 the non-profit Rainforest Art Foundation “to promote like-minded artists to make aware to the public the Green Movement through artistic expressions. I will continue the work of the Rainforest Art Foundation to protect plants, animals, and the entire planet—for it is our only home.” (2001) “Emerald Forest” (2000) (10’x20’) (acrylic) is one of Yu’s giant canvases. The emerald green trees in the painting survive, but the foliage at the top left is turning yellow as if it were dying. At the top right there are green leaves and a bright blue sky. Sweeping sun rays painted in oranges and blues penetrate the foliage. Dead leaves are piled up on the ground.

Yu began making prints for the Disappearing Forest Series in 2002. The consistent and frequency of forest fires over the decades inspired the new series. Predominantly painted in reds, the fire engulfs the black tree trunks. Ashes, painted in black, gray, and white, cover the ground. By June 2, 2024, California experienced 2,429 fires, destroying 95,562 acres.

The Marlene Yu Museum in Shreveport, Louisiana, was opened in 2014. Not only does it display Yu’s works, but it also offers several Biology & Art Exploration Programs. The hands-on programs introduce children to art and science as they work together. These programs are offered in Louisiana, New York, and Europe.

Yu started the Crystal Reef Series to capture the exquisite beauty of the shapes, colors, and patterns of corals reefs. “Crystal Reef 1’’ (2015) (acrylic) is painted in shades of purple, while others in series are painted in a variety of vibrant colors. In this painting, Yu has chosen to paint at the periphery white, dying coral.  Whether snorkeling over a coral reef or taking a glass bottom boat ride, the wonderful variety of corals and fish is nothing short of spectacular.

Since 1950, the number of coral reefs world-wide has shrunken by half, largely a result of climate change, pollution, and the collecting of coral for aquariums by dynamiting or chemically poisoning the reef. People who depend on marine life, marine animals that use reefs for spawning and feeding grounds, and humanity will suffer. The good news as of 2024 is that coral reefs can be regrown in four years.

 

Yu stated, “The Melting Series started in1965. It has continued through 2008, for it is my favorite subject. Without my realizing it, the series reflects what has become one of the most important issues of today, as human lifestyles and habits increase global warming that causes glaciers to melt rapidly. I hope through my art to convey the urgent message—Earth is in danger, please let us protect it together.” Yu has not finished the series. “Grant Glacier Melting” (2017) (12’x54’) (acrylic) illustrates that the world has not effectively addressed climate change. 

Yu continues to paint, lecture, write books, and educate the world on climate change issues. As of June 2019, Yu has had 81 solo exhibitions in the United States, Europe, and the Far East, and 300 publications in nine languages. Her works, which numbered 4800, were included in over 1000 public and private collections. She has created over 35 nature-themed series.

“I hope through my art to convey the urgent message—the earth is in danger, we must protect it together.” (Marlene Yu, 2021)

 

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Beverly Hall Smith was a professor of art history for 40 years. Since retiring to Chestertown with her husband Kurt in 2014, she has taught art history classes at WC-ALL and the Institute of Adult Learning, Centreville. An artist, she sometimes exhibits work at River Arts. She also paints sets for the Garfield Theater in Chestertown.

The first day of Summer, June 20, is the time to celebrate the attributes of the goddesses of Summer. Aine, the Celtic goddess of Summer, represents love, beauty, fertility, and the radiance of the Sun. Saule, the Baltic goddess of Summer, also is associated with fertility and the Sun that brings well-being to all life on Earth. She was celebrated at a midsummer festival in Latvia on June 23. 

The Greek goddess Demeter’s story was reinterpreted by the Romans, and she became Ceres, the goddess associated with Summer. She was one of the twelve significant deities of Rome, and she was represented in sculpture and mosaics in Roman temples and homes. Boccaccio dedicated a section to Ceres in his De Mulieribus Claris (On Famous Women) (1361-62), the first collection of biographies of women since ancient times. The many editions of his book were illustrated by different artists in different eras. “Ceres” (1488-96) is the symbol of fertility. She stands with sickle in hand beside two large sheaves of wheat, a blue sky adorned with gold stars is the background. Her sickle was intended not only to be used to cut grain. Ceres was believed to be the protector of crops and of agriculture in general. 

The name Ceres has its origins in an Indo-European root word kehr which meant to satiate and to feed. The Italian word crescere meant to grow; the Roman word was cerews.  From these base words, we have the word cereal. 

In another addition of Boccaccio’s book “Ceres” (1440) represents another aspect of the goddess. Ceres taught men how to plow and work the earth. Dressed in the medieval fashion of a queen, Ceres sits on a throne placed in a landscape. Her hand directs the sower to spread the seed, while two men spur on the oxen to pull the plow through the field to make it ready for the seeds.

The porcelain statue of “Ceres” (!770-71) (21”x15”) was created by Dominikus Auliczek (1734-1804) at the Nymphenburg Porcelain Works in Munich. Ceres is represented classically in the nude. Auliczek created curves throughout the composition. A curved and draped blue cloth is placed strategically. Her dynamic pose accentuates the graceful curves of her body. She holds a large, curved wheat sheaf, bound by a red ribbon.  At her feet, another sheaf of wheat bends downward and also is tied with a red ribbon. The triangular shapes of the blue drapery add stability to the figure. The wheat sheaves bend to the left, but she looks to the right. Her hair is decorated with a crown of kernels of wheat and seeds.

Auliczek studied sculpture in Vienna (1752-53), then in Paris (1754), London (1756-59), and Rome (1756-59). He was awarded a prize in sculpture in 1759, and Pope Clement XIII awarded him the Order of the Golden Spur, which conferred nobility.  He joined the Nymphenburg Porcelain Manufactory in 1763.  He was a major designer until he retired in 1797. At the same time (1763-1797) he was Court Sculptor and created large figures of Jupiter, Juno, Pluto, and Persephone for the palace gardens.

“Eta/Summer” (1896) (41”x21”) is from the first series of The Seasons, created by Czech artist Alphonse Mucha (1860-1939). He studied art in Munich and then at the Academie Julian and the Academie Colarossi in Paris (1888). He painted portraits and subjects from history. He was discovered by the actress Sarah Bernhardt in 1894, and his life changed dramatically. Bernhardt was starring in Sardou’s play Gismonda, which was so popular the run was extended beyond December 1894. She wanted posters to announce the extension. Mucha’s posters for Gismonda hit the streets of Paris on January 1, 1895, and they were a sensation. Bernardt ordered four thousand copies and gave Mucha a six-year contract. The publisher Champenois began to order work from Mucha. His posters were the major influence on the Art Nouveau style that emerged around1900.

“Eta/Summer” is one in the series of four posters in which the seasons are depicted as beautiful, curvaceous young women, intwined with the flowers and plants of each season. Summer sits on the bank of a river, her feet dangling in the water, and her head and arms resting on a curving grape vine. Her long, brown hair is draped in the same manner as the folds of her garment that is draped over the bank. She wears an off-white gown, and her hair is adorned with a crown of red poppies. Poppies frequently were woven into the wheat crowns of priestesses and devotees of Ceres. Poppy seeds also were present in the Mediterranean region and were used as a mild sedative by 2700 BCE.  The flowers were associated with Demeter and Ceres as a symbol of fertility, sleep, death, and rebirth. The plants were cultivated in Greek and Roman wheatfields as a source of protein, fiber, calcium, and magnesium. 

“Ceres” (1930), is an aluminum Art Deco sculpture at the top of the Chicago Board of Trade Building by Chicago-born sculptor John H. Storrs (1885-1956).  Ceres wears a crown, and she holds a sheaf of wheat in her left hand and a bag of corn in her right hand. The sculpture consists of 40 sections, is 31 feet tall, and weighs 6,500 pounds. 

The goddess Ceres is represented in several America states. Her image appears on the state seal of New Jersey. Sculptures of Ceres are placed at the tops of the Missouri State Capitol and the Vermont State House. Named after the goddess Ceres, a town located in the San Joaquin Vallery south of San Francisco is one of the richest agricultural areas in California. 

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Beverly Hall Smith was a professor of art history for 40 years.  Since retiring with her husband Kurt to Chestertown six years ago, she has taught art history classes at WC-ALL and Chesapeake College’s Institute for Adult Learning.  She is also an artist whose work is sometimes in exhibitions at Chestertown RiverArts and she paints sets for the Garfield Center for the Arts.

Guiseppe De Nittis (1846-1884) was born in Barletta, Italy, a port on the Adriatic Sea. He became an orphan at age ten and was raised by his older brother. He attended the Realist Institution de Bella Art in Naples beginning in 1861. He was expelled in 1863, and he said “I became my own sole master.” He pursued plein-air painting and he began exhibiting in Turin in 1867, and in that same year, he moved to Paris. He visited London for the first time in 1873.  De Nittis saw the two cities with fresh eyes and immediately began to paint what he saw. He was befriended by Manet and Degas, who introduced him to the developing style of Impressionism. De Nittis’s style became a combination of Realism and Impressionism as he depicted the cultural sites of his time. His work was in demand.

De Nittis and his wife Leontine made annual trips to London beginning in 1874. London banker Kaye Knowles became a patron, and he commissioned ten paintings. He willed these to the National Gallery in London, to insure De Nittis’s work would be well represented. “The Serpentine, Hyde Park” (1874-77) (11”x14”) is a depiction of the forty-acre artificial lake Queen Caroline commissioned in 1730 as an addition to the park Henry VIII established in 1536. The Serpentine Lake became one of the most popular attractions for royals and commoners alike. 

De Nittis’s combination of Realism and Impressionism is evident in the painting. The dark trunks of the trees at the front are painted realistically, as are the spring green and yellow leaves on the trees. The wide lawn stretching back to the lake is painted a soft, grassy green.

The Serpentine Lake, midway in the composition, is where the visible brushwork and colors of Impressionism take over. The visitors in the park are represented by dots and dashes of paint. De Nittis carefully composed the water that sparkles in the sunlight and the reflections from the trees. Artistry, not accuracy was the intention. The Serpentine Bridge, built for carriages to enter the Park, like the trees was painted a soft blue-gray color. The sky and clouds are painted in the manner of the Impressionists with the complementary colors of blue and orange.

De Nittis painted “Elegant Women in Hyde Park, London” (1876) (17”x13”) in a realistic style. Like his friend Manet’s early works, it was concentrated on the beautiful people elegantly dressed. In the height of fashion, the ladies wear blue and light orange striped dresses. They are high-waisted with cascading layers of ruffles. The shoulders of the dresses are softly sloped, and the necks are low, allowing for the display of choker necklaces. No longer tied under their necks, hats are perched at an angle atop high, curled hairstyles.

Hyde Park was created for entertainment. Carriage and horseback rides and strolling were only some of the activities. In the 18th Century, Hyde Park was the location for 172 duels. It was the site of the Great Exhibition of 1851, where England showed the latest developments in engineering, science, and art. The exhibition was housed in the Crystal Palace, designed by the architect Joseph Paxton and constructed of iron and glass.

“Palace of Westminster” (1878) (43’’x76’’) illustrates that De Nittis was equally accomplished when chose to embrace Impressionism, albeit with just a touch of Realism. He creates two diagonals in the painting: Westminster Bridge at the lower right and the Houses of Parliament at the center. The onlookers on the bridge are London commoners. All wear trousers and jackets which would have been made of heavy course fabric and bowler hats, popular among the working class in the 19th Century. The woman with the child wears a dark dress, a white apron, and a scarf tied around her head. They were the clothes of the working class.

At sunset, the workers on the bridge have stopped to rest on their way home.  The rosy pinks and oranges of the sunset are reflected in the blue-gray water of the Themes River. The Houses of Parliament were rebuilt by architects Charles Barry and Augustus Pugin after the destructive fire in October 1834. The details of the Gothic Revival style of the Houses of Parliament are obscured by fog. De Nittis displays the two famous towers. The square Victoria Tower, 323 feet tall, at the left, was designed by Barry to resemble a castle keep. At the far right, the Elizabeth Tower, more commonly called Big Ben, 315 feet tall, was designed by Pugin. The five bells in the belfry strike the Westminster Chimes every quarter hour. De Nittis has included the smaller towers: the Central Tower, 299 feet tall, and the two smaller towers, one for the speaker of the House of Commons, and the other for the Lord Chancellor. 

De Nittis captured in paint all the important London landmarks. In “The National Gallery and St Martin’s Church in London” (1878) (32×44) his style of Realism is on display. The façade of the National Gallery, at the left side of the canvas, is the same one that visitors see today. It was open to the public in 1838.  Londoners of all types stroll along the wide sidewalk. Men and women of fashion, children with their parents, some walking and some in strollers, a grandmother, carriages, and placard carriers advertising a variety of items are part of a bustling, busy, and interesting street scene.

St Martin-in-the-Fields Church is located at the north-east corner of Trafalgar Square.  De Nittis places the church at the center of the composition. This Anglican church marks the center of London, and it is said to be the most famous church in London. A church was located on this site in 1222 and was rebuilt by Henry VIII in 1552. Scots architect James Gibbs rebuilt the church in 1726. He unexpectedly decided to return to the classical style of Greece and Rome rather than the then-popular Gothic Revival style. The façade has a grand set of stairs and six massive Corinthian columns that are topped by a Greek pediment. 

The spire, set behind the pediment, was unique. Composed of three separate sections, two square and one round, it rose to a high peak. Gibbs’s design got mixed reviews when the church was built, but St. Martin-in-the-Fields became the most popular church in London, and the design has been copied in many places, including colonial American churches. 

De Nittis’s friend Degas invited him to participate in the first Impressionist exhibition in1874. De Nittis showed five paintings, but they were poorly displayed. De Nittis did not show with them again. However, his use of the Impressionist style continued. “In the Fields Around London” (1881) (18”x21.5’’) is an example. Women and children lounging in a field of flowers was a popular theme. The white summer dresses show the blue and orange shadows created by sunlight. The shaded grass is a combination of dashes of green, blue, and purple. The fields of flowers are rich with red and green brush strokes. The narrow background of green fields and trees is painted in a realistic manner, but that does not affect the viewer’s pleasure at witnessing this bright sunny day.  

“If one day my son were to ask me where to find happiness, I would answer: in painting.”  (Giuseppe De Nittis)